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. 2025 Oct;97(7):1910-1920.
doi: 10.1002/jad.70012. Epub 2025 Jul 2.

NR3C1 Methylation and Perceived Parenting as Joint Predictors of the Development of Loneliness in Adolescence

Koopmans Yentl  1 , Stefanie A Nelemans  2 , Stephan Claes  3 , Patricia Bijttebier  1 , Guy Bosmans  4 , Wim Van Den Noortgate  5 , Karla Van Leeuwen  6 , Luc Goossens  1
Affiliations

NR3C1 Methylation and Perceived Parenting as Joint Predictors of the Development of Loneliness in Adolescence

Koopmans Yentl et al. J Adolesc. 2025 Oct.

Abstract

Introduction: Adolescents who perceive low levels of parental support or high levels of parental psychological control are at increased risk for developing loneliness. However, the association between parenting experiences and loneliness varies among adolescents. This study examined whether higher levels of DNA methylation in the glucocorticoid receptor gene (NR3C1), a gene directly involved in stress-reactivity, moderated the association between parental support and psychological control and the development of loneliness in early adolescence.

Methods: A sample of 622 Belgian early adolescents (55% girls, Mage T1 = 10.77 years, SDage T1 = 0.48) reported on loneliness annually for three waves (2017-2020). At Wave 1, perceived parental support and psychological control were assessed via questionnaires, and NR3C1 methylation via saliva samples. Latent growth curve models were estimated.

Results and conclusions: Results revealed stronger associations between parental psychological control and initial levels of loneliness for adolescents with higher levels of NR3C1 methylation. In line with the diathesis-stress model, this finding suggests that the association between parental psychological control and adolescent loneliness may be stronger among individuals with higher NR3C1 methylation.

Keywords: DNA methylation; diathesis–stress model; early adolescence; loneliness; parenting.

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