Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
. 2025 Jul 4;25(1):2380.
doi: 10.1186/s12889-025-23519-0.

Trends and determinants of female genital mutilation prevalence among women of reproductive age in Tanzania and Kenya: a demographic and health survey analysis (2008-2022)

Dotto Daniel Kisendi  1   2 , D Lyakurwa  1 , Heavenlight A Paulo  3 , Elizabeth Malingumu  4 , Virna Vong  1 , E Matthews  4 , Ebrima Huma  4 , Mgole Eliud Mkama  5 , Kang Wu  1 , Yili Zhang  6 , Bei Li  7
Affiliations

Trends and determinants of female genital mutilation prevalence among women of reproductive age in Tanzania and Kenya: a demographic and health survey analysis (2008-2022)

Dotto Daniel Kisendi et al. BMC Public Health. .

Abstract

Background: Female genital mutilation (FGM) remains a critical global public health challenge, with over 230 million affected women and girls, predominantly in Sub-Saharan Africa. Despite the reduction in FGM in both countries, the proportion of women who had FGM are still considerably high. Therefore, the study seeks to examine the socio-economic/demographic determinants of FGM in Kenya and Tanzania to inform more targeted interventions.

Methods: A retrospective analysis of Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) data from 6,517 women aged 15-49 in Kenya and Tanzania (2008-2022) was conducted. Trends were assessed using weighted prevalence percentages and visualized via line graphs. Chi-square tests and multivariable logistic regression, adjusting for complex survey design, identified associations between FGM and socio-demographic, economic, and media-related determinants.

Results: Higher education (AOR = 0.25, p < 0.001), wealth (AOR = 0.62, p < 0.002), urban residence (AOR = 0.37, p < 0.001), and weekly radio exposure (AOR = 0.53, p < 0.001) significantly reduced FGM risks. Conversely, rural residence (AOR = 4.12, p < 0.001), religious mandates (AOR = 3.81, p < 0.001), and recent internet use (AOR = 2.40, p < 0.001) increased vulnerability. Contextual disparities emerged: Kenya's FGM was strongly associated with Muslim affiliation (AOR = 9.41, p < 0.001), while Tanzania's persistence stemmed from rural agrarian livelihoods and occupational inequities. Internet use paradoxically correlated with higher FGM prevalence, reflecting potential urban-rural divides in digital health messaging efficacy.

Conclusion: Education, economic stability, urban living, literacy, and radio exposure lower FGM risks in Kenya and Tanzania, while rural poverty, limited education, religious justifications, and internet use increase them. FGM in Kenya is linked to Muslim practices, requiring faith-sensitive strategies, while in Tanzania, it is tied to rural ethnic traditions. Interestingly, higher internet use correlates with increased FGM prevalence, suggesting it may perpetuate harmful norms without targeted messaging. Effective interventions should integrate legal enforcement, community education, women's empowerment, and cultural partnerships, extending urban strategies to rural areas and combating misinformation through digital literacy. Limitations like cross-sectional design highlight the need for longitudinal research. Ongoing, context-driven efforts are crucial for eliminating FGM and advancing global gender equity.

Keywords: Determinants; Female genital mutilation; Kenya; Prevalence trends; Tanzania.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

Declarations. Ethics approval and consent to participate: The study analyzed the collected data from the Demographic Health Survey (DHS), which had already obtained ethical clearance; hence, this study did not need another ethical clearance. However, permission to use the data was requested from the DHS custodian. Procedures and questionnaires for standard DHS surveys have been reviewed and approved by ICF Institutional Review Board (IRB). Additionally, country-specific DHS survey protocols are reviewed by the ICF IRB and typically by an IRB in the host country. ICF IRB ensures that the survey complies with the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services regulations for protecting human subjects (45 CFR 46), while the host country IRB ensures that the survey complies with the laws and norms of the nation. Consent for publication: Not applicable. Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1
Frequency of FGM by type of practitioner
Fig. 2
Fig. 2
Trend of FGM Prevalence in Tanzania and Kenya across Three Recent Phases of DHS using R software
Fig. 3
Fig. 3
Proportion of Women who underwent FGM
See this image and copyright information in PMC

References

    1. Organisation WH. WHO guidelines on the management of health complications from female genital mutilation. National Library of Medicine 2016. - PubMed
    1. Child UFE. Over 230 million girls and women alive today have been subjected to female genital mutilation — UNICEF, in New global estimates show a 15 per cent increase in the total number of FGM survivors compared to data released in 2016. 08 March 2024.
    1. Kandala NB, et al. Secular trends in the prevalence of female genital mutilation/cutting among girls: a systematic analysis. BMJ Glob Health. 2018;3(5):e000549. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Organization WH, editor. Care of girls and women living with female genital mutilation: A clinical handbook. 2018.
    1. Sarayloo K, Latifnejad Roudsari R, Elhadi A. Health Consequences Female Genit Mutilation: Syst Rev Galen Med J. 2019;8:e1336. - PMC - PubMed

Grants and funding

LinkOut - more resources