Innovation through recycling in Iron Age plaster technology at Tell el-Burak, Lebanon

Abstract

Recent excavations at the Phoenician coastal site of Tell el-Burak, a large-scale agricultural production centre in use during 725-350 BCE, have uncovered the first Iron Age wine press in Lebanon. This discovery enabled a systematic, interdisciplinary study of its plaster, offering insights into ancient construction technologies. The analysis extended to two other plastered installations found in separate rooms within the complex, allowing for a comprehensive comparison. An integrated program of archaeometric analysis, including optical microscopy in polarising light, X-ray powder diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, thermogravimetry, and organic residue analysis, was applied to samples from these three structures to investigate plaster composition and technological variability. Previous studies identified the use of crushed ceramic fragments in a lime-based plaster. Now, new analyses provide deeper insights into the nature of the binder, revealing how the addition of ceramic sherds may have enhanced the plaster's mechanical properties and hydraulicity, making it a significant early example of hydraulic mortar. These findings confirm the existence of a local, innovative tradition of lime-plaster manufacture in southern Phoenicia. This investigation not only sheds light on the specific technological practices of Tell el-Burak, but also contributes to the broader understanding of Phoenician and Punic technological advancements in the Iron Age Mediterranean.

Keywords: Ceramics; Iron Age technology; Lebanon; Phoenician; Plaster; Recycling.

Fig. 1

Illustrations related to the geographical and archaeological context of Tell el-Burak: (a) Map of the central Levant with the position of Tell el-Burak. (b) Plan of the settlement at Tell el-Burak, showing the excavated areas. Images courtesy of the Tell el-Burak Archaeological Project and generated using FreeHand 10. (https://www.adobe.com/mena_en/products/freehand/).

Fig. 2

Tell el-Burak, plastered installations: (a) Area 4, the wine press, from the west. (b) Area 3, the plastered basin in Room 3 of House 3, from the southwest. (c) Area 3, the plastered floor in Room 1 of “House 4”, from the northeast (courtesy of the Tell el-Burak Archaeological Project).

Fig. 3

Thin section microphotographs of two thermally altered limestone fragments in sample SA3: (a) Polarising microscope, XP; (b, c) BSE images at high magnification; (d) BSE image showing a particular section of limestone with visible micro-fossiliferous content.

Fig. 4

Thin section microphotographs showing two different types of ceramic aggregates: (a) Type 1, polarising microscope, XP; (b) Type 1, BSE image at high magnification; (c) Type 2, polarising microscope, XP; (d) Type 2, BSE image at high magnification; (e) Type 1, BSE image at high magnification; (f) Type 2 with bloating pores, BSE image at high magnification.

Fig. 5

SEM–EDS analysis of reaction rims (Type 1): (a) and (b) Reaction rim between a ceramic fragment and a calcitic lime in sample SA1 at different magnifications, polarising microscope, XP; (c) BSE image of the reaction rim; (d) EDS spectrum of the reaction rim.

Fig. 6

SEM–EDS analysis of sample SA6: (a) BSE image of a highly porous area; (b) EDS spectrum of the area.

Fig. 7

Results of thermogravimetry analysis: (a) Plot of weight loss attributed to CO₂/hydraulic water vs % CO₂; (b) Plot % of weight loss attributed to hydraulic water vs CO₂.

Fig. 8

Partial total ion chromatogram of the two plaster samples taken from the treading floor of the winery: (a) TLB-5P; (b) TLB-6P; (c) the soil control sample. Sulphur can be seen to be present in the plaster samples but absent in the soil control sample tested [Cx:y: Fatty Acids showing the number of carbon atoms (x) and the number of unsaturations (y), Bu: Butylated Fatty Acids; ALC: Alcohols showing carbon number; *: Alkanes; !: C₂₄ Alcohol; 1: 2-monostearin; 2: β-sitosterol; 3: C₃₀ Alcohol; S: Sulphur, P: Phthalates; IS: Internal standards; MAG: Monoacylglycerols].