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Review
. 2025 Jun 23;26(13):6021.
doi: 10.3390/ijms26136021.

Advances in Neuromodulation and Digital Brain-Spinal Cord Interfaces for Spinal Cord Injury

Phillip Jaszczuk  1 , Denis Bratelj  2 , Crescenzo Capone  2 , Marcel Rudnick  2 , Tobias Pötzel  2   3 , Rajeev K Verma  3   4 , Michael Fiechter  2   3
Affiliations
Review

Advances in Neuromodulation and Digital Brain-Spinal Cord Interfaces for Spinal Cord Injury

Phillip Jaszczuk et al. Int J Mol Sci. .

Abstract

Spinal cord injury (SCI) results in a significant loss of motor, sensory, and autonomic function, imposing substantial biosocial and economic burdens. Traditional approaches, such as stem cell therapy and immune modulation, have faced translational challenges, whereas neuromodulation and digital brain-spinal cord interfaces combining brain-computer interface (BCI) technology and epidural spinal cord stimulation (ESCS) to create brain-spine interfaces (BSIs) offer promising alternatives by leveraging residual neural pathways to restore physiological function. This review examines recent advancements in neuromodulation, focusing on the future translation of clinical trial data to clinical practice. We address key considerations, including scalability, patient selection, surgical techniques, postoperative rehabilitation, and ethical implications. By integrating interdisciplinary collaboration, standardized protocols, and patient-centered design, neuromodulation has the potential to revolutionize SCI rehabilitation, reducing long-term disability and enhancing quality of life globally.

Keywords: brain–computer interface; brain–spine interface; epidural spinal cord stimulation; neuromodulation; neurorehabilitation; spinal cord injury.

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Conflict of interest statement

TP has received travel and speaker fees from Medtronic. All the remaining authors declare no conflicts of interest concerning the content of this review.

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