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. 2025 Jul 21;25(1):938.
doi: 10.1186/s12870-025-06941-9.

Assessment of iron accumulation in vegetables cultivated with excessive application of organic and inorganic fertilizers along with various water sources

Mehwish Amjad  1 , Zafar Iqbal Khan  2 , Ahlam Khalofah  3   4 , Muhammad Arif  5 , Saima Sadaf  6
Affiliations

Assessment of iron accumulation in vegetables cultivated with excessive application of organic and inorganic fertilizers along with various water sources

Mehwish Amjad et al. BMC Plant Biol. .

Abstract

Irrigation with sewage water can offer benefits such as increased crop productivity, but it also has significant drawbacks that affect crops, soil quality, and human health. Given its diverse composition of toxins, including chemicals and heavy metals, sewage water can adversely impact both soil fertility and crop health. With this in mind, the objective of this research was to evaluate the potential health risks associated with iron (Fe) in vegetables, specifically leafy and root vegetables, irrigated with wastewater, canal water, and a combination of organic and inorganic fertilizers. Water, soil, and edible components of food crops were randomly sampled from different treatments (T0-T11). The concentration of iron (Fe) in these samples was determined via an atomic absorption spectrophotometer, which employs the wet digestion method for sample preparation. The concentrations of iron (Fe) ranged from 0.4672 mg/L to 1.083 mg/L in water, 5.702 to 46.633 mg/kg in soil, and 192.57-58.49 mg/kg in crop samples. These values were within the permissible limits set by the World Health Organization (WHO). Additionally, various indices, including the bioconcentration factor (BCF), enrichment factor (EF), daily intake of metals (DIM), and health risk index (HRI), were found to be less than 1. These findings suggest that the levels of Fe in vegetables suggest a low potential for health risks under current exposure levels. However, the pollution load index exceeded 1, indicating soil contamination. Despite this, there are no indications of Fe toxicity in crops, nor are there identified health risks or carcinogenic risks associated with the consumption of these food crops by humans. To mitigate the risk of excessive accumulation of iron (Fe) in the food chain, regular monitoring is essential.

Keywords: Heavy metals; Human health; Inorganic fertilizers; Vegetables; Wastewater irrigation.

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Conflict of interest statement

Declarations. Ethics approval and consent to participate: The Institutional Ethics and Guideline Committee of the University of Sargodha (Approval No. 38-B33/2020 UOS) has allowed all the protocols used in this experiment. All the experimental methods used in this study followed all the appropriate guidance and regulations. Consent for publication: All the subjects gave their “informed consent” for the publication of details within the text (“informed consent”) to be published in the above Journal and Article. Written “informed consent” was obtained from all the authors for the publication of this manuscript. Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1
Concentration of iron in water types in year 1 and year 2 in six studies vegetables
Fig. 2
Fig. 2
Difference in the value of iron (Fe) (mg/kg) in soils, Concentration of iron in soil for year-1(A), Concentration of iron in soil for year-2 (B), given through different treatments (T0-T11) in six studied vegetables
Fig. 3
Fig. 3
Difference in the value of iron (Fe) (mg/kg) in vegetables, Concentration of iron in vegetables for year-1 (A), Concentration of iron in vegetables for year-2 (B), given through different treatments (T0-T11) in six studied vegetables
Fig. 4
Fig. 4
Difference in the value of iron (Fe), Difference in the value of PLI in year-1 (A), Difference in the value of PLI in Year-2 (B) given through different treatments (T0-T11) in six studied vegetables
Fig. 5
Fig. 5
Difference in the value of iron (Fe), Difference in the value of BCF in year-1 (A), Difference in the value of BCF in Year-2 (B) given through different treatments (T0-T11) in six studied vegetables
Fig. 6
Fig. 6
Difference in the value of iron (Fe), Difference in the value of EF in year-1 (A), Difference in the value of EF in Year-2 (B) given through different treatments (T0-T11) in six studied vegetables
Fig. 7
Fig. 7
Difference in the value of iron (Fe), Difference in the value of DIM in year-1 (A), Difference in the value of DIM in Year-2 (B) given through different treatments (T0-T11)
Fig. 8
Fig. 8
Difference in the value of iron (Fe), Difference in the value of HRI in year-1 (A), Difference in the value of HRI in Year-2 (B) given through different treatments (T0-T11) in six studied vegetables
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