Inflammation and Immunomodulation in Cerebral X-linked Adrenoleukodystrophy: Review of Pathology and Interventions

Abstract

ObjectivesMore than half of males with X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy (ALD) develop progressive, inflammatory cerebral demyelination (cerebral adrenoleukodystrophy). Treatment for cerebral adrenoleukodystrophy is limited with no standard therapies for advanced cerebral adrenoleukodystrophy. We reviewed cerebral adrenoleukodystrophy literature and expert opinion, compiling immunopathology, biomarkers, and therapies tested.MethodsWe reviewed published literature from January 1, 1970, through November 1, 2024, and surveyed expert clinicians worldwide caring for cerebral adrenoleukodystrophy patients for unpublished agent use.ResultsWe identified 20 publications with primary data on human cerebral adrenoleukodystrophy immunopathology. Seventeen publications reported cerebral adrenoleukodystrophy biomarkers. We identified 14 publications reporting use of 7 different agents; unpublished clinician reports identified use of 9 different agents.ConclusionsCerebral adrenoleukodystrophy immunopathology represents complex dysregulation of cytokines, macrophages, T cells, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglia. Partial responses to cerebral adrenoleukodystrophy were noted with intravenous immunoglobulin, sirolimus, leriglitazone, and mycophenolate. Our findings suggest consideration for a randomized platform trial of immunomodulatory agents for advanced cerebral adrenoleukodystrophy.

Keywords: ALD; X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy; cerebral ALD; immunopathology; leukodystrophy.

Figure 1.

PRISMA flow diagram of cALD immunopathology, immunological agent, and biomarker review, showing records identified, included and excluded, and reasons for exclusions.