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Review
. 2025 Jul 9;15(4):117.
doi: 10.3390/jox15040117.

An Integrative Approach to Assessing the Impact of Mercury (Hg) on Avian Behaviour: From Molecule to Movement

Dora Bjedov  1 , Mirta Sudarić Bogojević  1 , Jorge Bernal-Alviz  2 , Goran Klobučar  3 , Jean-Paul Bourdineaud  4 , K M Aarif  5 , Alma Mikuška  1
Affiliations
Review

An Integrative Approach to Assessing the Impact of Mercury (Hg) on Avian Behaviour: From Molecule to Movement

Dora Bjedov et al. J Xenobiot. .

Abstract

Mercury (Hg) pollution is a widespread ecological threat with sublethal effects on wildlife. Birds, due to their ecological diversity and sensitivity, serve as effective models for evaluating the behavioural impacts of Hg exposure. This review applies Tinbergen's four questions: causation, ontogeny, function, and evolution, as an integrative framework. Mechanistically, Hg disrupts neuroendocrine pathways, gene expression, immune function, and hormone regulation, leading to behavioural changes such as reduced foraging, altered parental care, and impaired predator avoidance. Early-life exposure affects neural development, learning, and social behaviour into adulthood. Functionally, these changes reduce fitness by compromising reproduction and survival. Phylogenetic comparisons show interspecific variability, with piscivorous and insectivorous birds exhibiting high Hg burdens and sensitivity, linked to ecological roles and exposure. Behavioural responses often precede physiological or demographic effects, highlighting their value as early indicators. Both field and laboratory studies show that even low Hg concentrations can alter behaviour, though outcomes vary by species, life stage, and exposure route. Integrating behavioural endpoints into ecotoxicological risk assessments is essential to improve conservation strategies and understanding of sublethal pollutant effects on wildlife.

Keywords: Tinbergen’s postulates; behavioural ecology; sublethal mercury toxicity; trophic transfer of mercury; wildlife conservation.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Schematic representation of how mercury (Hg) disrupts homeostasis, subsequently affecting behaviour in birds.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Scheme of how mercury (Hg) exposure during key developmental stages, embryonic and juvenile, affects bird behaviour later in life.
Figure 3
Figure 3
F Scheme of functional consequences of mercury (Hg)-induced behavioural alterations on bird survival and reproduction.
Figure 4
Figure 4
Schematic summary of evolutionary (phylogenetic) influences on species-specific responses to mercury (Hg) exposure in birds.
Figure 5
Figure 5
A schematic summary of an integrative framework for understanding behavioural impacts of mercury (Hg) exposure in birds, based on Tinbergen’s four questions: causation, ontogeny, function, and evolution.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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