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. 2025 Jul 29;21(1):496.
doi: 10.1186/s12917-025-04920-8.

Paratuberculosis in small ruminants in the Sudan: prevalence and risk factors

Sanaa M Idris  1   2   3 , Wisal A Elmagzoub  1   3   4 , Julius B Okuni  5 , Lonzy Ojok  5   6 , Mohamed E Mukhtar  7 , Enass M Abdalla  1   3 , Sulieman M El Sanousi  8 , Ahmad Amanzada  9 , Uwe Truyen  3 , Ahmed Abd El Wahed  10 , ElSagad Eltayeb  11 , Kamal H Eltom  12   13 , Ahmed A Gameel  2
Affiliations

Paratuberculosis in small ruminants in the Sudan: prevalence and risk factors

Sanaa M Idris et al. BMC Vet Res. .

Abstract

Background: Paratuberculosis (PTB), caused by Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP), is a contagious and chronic enteric disease of ruminants and many non-ruminants leading to emaciation and death of the animal. PTB is poorly investigated in sheep and goats in Sudan, where these animals contribute significantly to food security and poverty alleviation as sources of income. They also play an important role in the national economy through animal exports. The objectives of this study were to investigate the prevalence of PTB and associated risk factors in small ruminants. Blood and faecal samples were collected from 818 sheep and goats aged > 1 year in 111 flocks distributed over five states (Blue Nile, West Kordofan, Khartoum, the Gezira and White Nile) of the country from November 2020 to October 2022. Serum samples were tested by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for detection of MAP antibodies and the faecal samples were tested for MAP DNA using a recombinase aided amplification (RAA) assay.

Results: The overall true animal-level prevalence of PTB was 10.7% by RAA (4.2% in sheep, 6.5% in goats) and 1.7% by ELISA (0.7% in sheep, 1.0% in goats). At the flock level, prevalence was 41.8% by RAA and 8.5% by ELISA. While no significant associations were found between animal-level factors and PTB, several flock-level factors including breed homogeneity, source of new animals, management system, animal movement, separation of sick animals, and flock history of PTB were significantly associated with MAP detection (P < 0.05).

Conclusions: The high flock-level prevalence of MAP DNA indicates a potential risk for environmental dissemination, especially under open grazing systems. Despite the relatively low seroprevalence, molecular detection suggests subclinical infection may be underdiagnosed. These findings highlight the importance of using combined diagnostic methods for effective PTB surveillance and control. Improved flock management practices are recommended to reduce MAP transmission and environmental contamination.

Keywords: Mycobacterium avium subsp. Paratuberculosis; Paratuberculosis; Recombinase aided amplification; Small ruminants.

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Conflict of interest statement

Declarations. Ethics approval and consent to participate: Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Khartoum (Reference No. FVM 1-1-2021). Sample collection was conducted with the informed consent of animal owners and permission from both federal and local veterinary authorities. Consent for publication: Not applicable. Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1
Map of the Sudan showing the states (in red) selected for PTB survey in small ruminants. The map was created from https://mapchart.net/world.htm
Fig. 2
Fig. 2
Comparison of mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) positivity in sheep and goats detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and recombinase aided amplification (RAA)
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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