Advancing vaccine-based immunotherapy in glioblastoma treatment

Abstract

Glioblastomas (GBMs) originate from glial cells and are characterized by aggressive growth and poor prognosis. Despite advances in surgical resection, complete elimination remains challenging, often leading to recurrence that is resistant to standard therapies. Immunotherapy and conventional treatments show promise in enhancing therapeutic outcomes across various cancers. Researchers continue to explore new treatments, particularly radiation, chemotherapy, and surgery; however, glioblastoma remains highly challenging, with only modest improvements in survival. Recent progress in immunotherapy, especially with tumor vaccines such as peptide-based and cell-based options (eg, dendritic cell vaccines), represents significant advancements despite the limitations observed in current clinical trials. This article reviews recent developments in vaccine-based immunotherapy for glioblastoma treatment.

Keywords: glioblastoma; tumor antigen; vaccine efficacy; vaccine perspective; vaccine platform.

Graphical Abstract

Figure 1.

Angiogenesis is important in cancer development because solid tumors require a blood supply to grow beyond a few millimeters. Tumors can cause this blood supply to grow by releasing chemical signals that promote angiogenesis. Primary and metastatic brain tumors grow owing to their capacity to recruit blood vessels by coopting host vessels (cooption), sprouting new arteries (angiogenesis), and/or recruiting bone marrow-derived cells (vasculogenesis). The figure is created using Biorender.com with the following link. https://app.biorender.com/illustrations/621f35883514b0004c6ace28

Figure 2.

Microenvironmental Control of Tumor Progression and Therapeutic Response in Brain Metastasis. Cellular and noncellular components of the tumor microenvironment (TME) are important regulators of initial tumor growth, organ-specific metastasis, and treatment response. As a result, ctDNA has the potential to be employed for assessing tumor development and prognosis. In conclusion, liquid biopsy based on ctDNA analysis may constitute the next generation of tumor diagnostic and prognostic testing because of its excellent accuracy and sensitivity. The figure is created using Biorender.com with the following link. https://app.biorender.com/signup/payments?src=General%20proactive%20upgrade%20modal

Figure 3.

Different molecular mechanisms are implicated in the malignancy of GBM. The molecular mechanisms underlying GB are complicated, emphasizing the necessity for targeted treatment techniques. The deregulation of several molecular signaling pathways, the presence of the BBB, which prevents almost all chemotherapeutic agents from reaching the tumor site, and the presence of a population of stem-like cells known to be responsible for tumor recurrence after therapy can contribute to GB chemoresistance. GBM: Glioblastoma; MMP: Metalloproteinases; EGFR: Epidermal growth factor receptor; VEGFR: Vascular endothelial growth factor receptor; HIF-1a: Hypoxia-inducible factor 1a; miR: microRNA; cyto C: cytochrome C; mtDNA: Mitochondrial DNA; MCFAs: Medium-chain fatty acids; VDAC1: Voltage-dependent anion channel 1; RB1: Retinoblastoma. The figure is created using Microsoft PowerPoint.