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. 2025 Jul 30:18:1621-1636.
doi: 10.2147/PRBM.S527745. eCollection 2025.

Birth Order and Chinese Adolescent Mental Health within the Context of the Three-Child Policy: The Roles of Parenting Styles and Parental Company

Yating Qi  1   2 , Jiayue Qiu  2   3 , Yunyi Zhang  2   4 , Yaoyao Shi  2   5 , Chenjia Xie  1   2 , JingXuan Zhou  1   2 , Youjia Wu  2   6 , Yuexia Gao  1   2
Affiliations

Birth Order and Chinese Adolescent Mental Health within the Context of the Three-Child Policy: The Roles of Parenting Styles and Parental Company

Yating Qi et al. Psychol Res Behav Manag. .

Abstract

Purpose: The implementation of the three-child policy brings about changes to family structures and resource distributions. However, little research has explored the effects of birth order on adolescent mental health in this context. This study aims to bridge the gap by investigating the relationship between birth order and mental health and discovering the underlying factors.

Patients and methods: In this cross-sectional study, 3581 adolescents from 42 schools across 17 cities in China were recruited. Data on mental health (the adapted Chinese version of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, SDQ), parenting styles (the Parenting Styles Scale), birth order, duration of parental company, and demographic characteristics were assessed. Hierarchical multiple regression analysis analyzes the relationships among these factors.

Results: Compared with only-child adolescents, first-borns had higher scores of total SDQ (β= 0.74, p<0.01), emotional symptoms (β= 0.22, p<0.05), conduct symptoms (β= 0.18, p<0.01), and peer relationship symptoms (β= 0.29, p<0.001). They experienced less emotionally warm (β= -0.54, p<0.001) and trust-encouraged (β= -0.34, p<0.01) parenting styles, with shorter durations of parental company (β= -0.26, p<0.001). Middle-born adolescents had higher peer relationship symptoms scores and more neglectful parenting styles. Last-born adolescents were more likely to receive spoiled parenting styles.

Conclusion: This study elucidates the effects of birth order on adolescent mental health in the three-child policy era, revealing that parenting styles vary by birth order. First-borns may experience suboptimal parenting styles and shorter parental company, increasing mental health risks. Middle-borns may encounter neglectful parenting styles, while last-borns experience spoiled parenting styles. These findings emphasize the need for tailored support from parents and schools to address each child's unique needs and foster better psychological development. Limitations include reliance on self-reported data and the cross-sectional design that restricts causal inference. Future research should adopt longitudinal designs and explore cultural and regional variations.

Keywords: Chinese adolescents; adolescent mental health; birth order; duration of parental company; parenting style.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
SDQ scores across different birth orders.
Figure 2
Figure 2
SDQ scores across different duration of parental company.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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