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. 2025 Aug 6;15(34):27933-27940.
doi: 10.1039/d5ra04020e. eCollection 2025 Aug 1.

Biomass-derived 5-(tolylmethyl)furfural as a promising diesel additive: preparation, process scale-up, and engine studies

Abhishek Kumar Yadav  1 , Sandeep Kumar Yadav  1 , G N Kumar  2 , Vasudeva Madav  2 , Saikat Dutta  1
Affiliations

Biomass-derived 5-(tolylmethyl)furfural as a promising diesel additive: preparation, process scale-up, and engine studies

Abhishek Kumar Yadav et al. RSC Adv. .

Abstract

Furanic fuel oxygenates, renewably produced from biomass, have received significant interest in lessening dependence on petroleum-derived liquid fuels and reducing emissions. 5-(Tolylmethyl)furfural (TMF) was prepared by the Friedel-Crafts reaction between cellulose-derived 5-(acetoxymethyl)furfural (AcMF) and petroleum-derived toluene. The process was optimized on various parameters, such as reaction temperature, molar ratio of reagents, catalyst loading, and duration. Anhydrous ZnCl2 was the best catalyst for the reaction, affording a 67% isolated yield of TMF under optimized conditions (120 °C, 4 h). TMF was prepared on a 30 g scale and blended (1-5 vol%) with diesel. The physicochemical properties of the TMF-diesel blended fuel mixtures were studied, and then they were employed as fuel for a direct injection single-cylinder diesel engine. The results show good fuel properties and reduced emissions compared to unblended diesel fuel.

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Conflict of interest statement

There are no conflicts to declare.

Figures

Scheme 1
Scheme 1. Preparation of TMF as a hybrid biofuel and the use of TMF-diesel blends as engine fuel.
Fig. 1
Fig. 1. Variation of BTE with engine loads.
Fig. 2
Fig. 2. Variation of CP-max with engine loads.
Fig. 3
Fig. 3. Emission of NOx (in ppm) at various engine loads.
Fig. 4
Fig. 4. Emission of carbon monooxide (%) at various engine loads.
Fig. 5
Fig. 5. Emission of carbon dioxide (in %) at various engine loads.
Fig. 6
Fig. 6. Emission of unburnt hydrocarbon (in ppm) at various engine loads.
Fig. 7
Fig. 7. Emission of O2 (in %) at various engine loads.
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