Evidence of neolithic cannibalism among farming communities at El Mirador cave, Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain

Abstract

In El Mirador cave in Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain, a unique collection of human remains provides insights into cannibalistic practices from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age. Six Early Bronze Age individuals (4600-4100 cal BP) showing signs of cannibalism were discovered in the early 2000s. Later excavations uncovered older remains with similar cultural modifications. A Bayesian statistical analysis of the radiocarbon dates identified a single earlier event (5709-5573 cal BP) unrelated to the Bronze Age finds. 87Sr/86Sr analysis showed the cannibalised people were of local origin. The episode coincided with the end of the Neolithic occupation, suggesting this was a not common behaviour among the cave inhabitants. Given the age of the cannibalised individuals and environmental conditions, the data does not indicate a response to famine. This study complements and expands upon our understanding of European prehistoric cannibalism. The current findings suggest that cannibalism may be linked to intergroup violence during late prehistoric periods.

Fig. 1

Bayesian chronological model of the Holocene sequence from El Mirador cave, generated using OxCal v4.4. The probability distributions represent the summed calibrated radiocarbon dates associated with each archaeological phase or event. Sum Bronze Age: all radiocarbon dates associated with Bronze Age contexts. R_Date Individual Burial: the calibrated date of the individual burial found in level MIR106. Sum Cannibal Bronze Age: dates associated with the cannibalised human remains from MIR4. Sum Collective Burial: dates from the Chalcolithic collective burial in level MIR203. Sum Cannibal Neolithic: newly analysed remains showing cultural modifications, presented in this study. Sum Neolithic: all radiocarbon dates from Neolithic levels.

Fig. 2

Specimens used to estimate the age at death. (a) Ref. ATA11-MIR105-W15-10 and ATA11-MIR105-V15-38, Pars lateralis and pars basilaris without fusion of an individual between 5 and 7 years old. (b) Ref. ATA15-MIR105-T14-86, Pars lateralis and pars basilaris without fusion of an individual between 5 and 7 years old(c) Ref. ATA16-MIR202-N37-58. Right hemimandible with Dm2 present; M1 was lost postmortem. M2 exhibits cusp coalescence, and M3 shows initial cusp formation. The estimated age at death is between 6 and 10 years. (d) Ref. ATA16-MIR102-S13-20. Left hemimandible with the mental eminence, canine, M1 and M2 all present, displaying minimal occlusal wear. The M3 remains in the crypt, with root formation visible: the root is shorter than the crown, and the bifurcation area is already developed. The estimated age at death is between 15 and 17 years. (e) Ref. ATA10-MIR202-T35-11, Left hemimandible with M3 in the crypt, displays about half of the crown formed, with dentine development in progress. The individual’s age at death was 12–15. (f) Ref. ATA16-MIR102-T12-21, Maxilla left of an adult individual with M1, M2, and M3 (20–25 years old). (g) ATA16-MIR102-T12-6, mandible with alveolar bone resorption of an individual of more than 50 years old. Photography M.D.Guillén/IPHES.

Fig. 3

Remains modified by heating. (a-j) Burned bones showing the brown heat line of S100 and S200 of El Mirador cave. (a) Ref. ATA11-MIR203-S36-44, ulna. (b) Ref. ATA16-MI202-O36-90 distal humerus of a young. (c) Ref. ATA11-MIR105-V15-57, tibia midshaft. (d) Ref. ATA11-MIR203-T36-31, a distal shaft of tibia. (e) Ref. ATA11-MIR203-S36-30 humerus midshaft. (f) Ref. ATA16-MIR204-S36-63, femur midshaft. (g) Ref. ATA15-MIR202-T34-139, distal fibula. (h) Ref. ATA14-MIR202-T33-8, tibia midshaft. (i) ATA17-MIR202-O36-149, fibula. (j) Ref. ATA17-MIR205-P37-51, femur midshaft. (k) Ref. ATA09-MIR201-SC-73 femur midshaft with modifications compatible with pot polishing. Photography M.D.Guillén/IPHES.

Fig. 4

Cut marked specimens. Cut marks (white arrow) on human remains from contexts S100 and S200. (a) Humerus with slicing marks. (b, c) Clavicles showing slicing marks. (d) External side of a rib with defleshing-related slicing marks. (e) Proximal shaft fragment of an ulna with slicing marks associated with both disarticulation and defleshing. (f, j) Metatarsal II showing slicing marks on the proximal epiphysis. (g) Cervical vertebra fragment with cut marks on the articular process. (h) Scapular spine with cut marks. (i) Ilium with multiple cut marks resulting from defleshing activities. (k) Rib fragment with cut marks. (l) Fibula displaying cut marks associated with defleshing. Scale bars are shown either in detail or at the bottom of each image. Specimen numbers are indicated in white boxes. Photograpy M.D.Guillén, F. Marginedas /IPHES.

Fig. 5

Bone with human bone breakage (A-J), fresh fractures (K-X) and peeling (Y). (a) Ref. ATA17-MIR202-N39-125, femur with impact percussion on the near epiphysis portion. (b) Ref. ATA11-MIR102-V15-10, tibia, with a big impact notch on near epiphysis portion. (c) Ref. ATA13-MIR202-P38-1, Tibia with chop marks related to the bone breakage. (d) Ref. ATA13-MIR202-P39-9, femur showing an impact notch. (e) Ref. ATA13-MIR203-S36-161, tibia with an impact notch. (f) Ref. ATA16-MIR102-T13-91notches on femur diaphysis. (g) Ref. ATA15-MIR102-S14-62, femur with an adhered flake and a percussion pit. (h) ATA15-MIR202-Q37-167 humerus with an impact notch. (i) Ref. ATA15-MIR105-T15-416, humerus. (j) Ref. ATA15-MIR102-S14-62, femur. (k) Ref. ATA15-MIR202-T34-52, fibula. (l) Ref. ATA15-MIR202-O37-124, fibula. (m) Ref. ATA15-MIR204-P37-39, femur. (n) Ref. ATA15-MIR204-P36-7, Ulna. (o) ATA14-MIR202-O37-86, femur. (p) Ref. ATA13-MIR203-R37-301, femur. (q) Ref. ATA10-MIR202-R35-78, tibia. (r) Ref. ATA09-MIR101-SC-84, femur. (s) Ref. ATA15-MIR204-S37-87, fibula. (t) Ref. ATA15-MIR202-T34-137, femur. (u) Ref. ATA10-MIR101-SC-325, femur. (v) ATA15-MIR204-P38-5, femur. (x) ATA10-MIR201-SC-976, II metatarsal. (y) ATA15-MIR202-Q38-67, rib with a classic peeling. Photography M.D.Guillén/IPHES.

Fig. 6

Specimens with modifications related to human chewing. (a) Ref. ATA15-MIR202-O38-118 fibula with scooping out on two epiphyses associated with cracks and crushing. (b) Ref. ATA15-MIR202-N39-37 radius of a child with scooping of the two ends and cracks. (c) Ref. ATA12-MIR201-P34-48, infantile scapula with a crenulated edge. (d) Ref. ATA09-MIR202-S35-7, atlas with tooth marks on the apophysis with double arch fractures. (e) Ref. ATA15-MIR204-S37-51, V metacarpal with scooping out, cracks, and crushing on the ends. (f) ATA15-MIR202-Q37-204, metatarsal with scooping out, cracks, and crushing on the ends. (g) ATA13-MIR201-O38-12, IV metatarsal with furrowing on the distal epiphysis. (h) ATA13-MIR202-Q38-80 proximal hand phalange. Photography M.D.Guillén/IPHES.