Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
. 2025 Aug 12;15(1):29540.
doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-13839-x.

Thermomechanical and physicochemical investigation of Raw clay bricks derived from Nomayo clay and palm shell powder lignocellulosic material

Hamka Hamka Adolphe Claudel  1 , Olembe Roland Yves  2 , Djomi Rolland  3 , Ngohe Ekam Paul Salomon  4 , Touani Chualeu Parfait  3 , Biyeme Florent  3 , Tchotang Theodore  3
Affiliations

Thermomechanical and physicochemical investigation of Raw clay bricks derived from Nomayo clay and palm shell powder lignocellulosic material

Hamka Hamka Adolphe Claudel et al. Sci Rep. .

Abstract

This study proposes an in-depth characterization of the physicochemical, thermal and mechanical properties of unfired clay bricks derived from Nomayos clay (Cameroon), with progressive additions of palm kernel shell powder bio-based material (0 to 60% by mass). The aim was to assess the influence of lignocellulosic palm kernel shell powder on the physical and mechanical properties of unfired clay bricks, with a view to proposing a sustainable, lightweight, low-cost construction solution. To this end, physical analysis revealed a significant reduction in density (22-35%) with increasing organic matter content, attributed to the lower density of palm kernel shells. Scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX) confirms a homogeneous distribution of the main elements (C, O, Mg, Fe, Si, Al, Na, K, Ti). X-ray diffraction and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis show kaolinite as the main mineral phase, with a little amount of quartz and organic functional groups in composite samples. Thermal analysis (TGA/DTA/DTG) indicates a three-stage decomposition process: moisture loss (~ 188 °C), cellulose degradation (~ 314 °C, Δm ≈ 19.17%), and kaolinite dehydroxylation (> 500 °C), with thermal stability reached above 600 °C. Mechanical tests show a progressive decrease in compressive strength from 4.64 MPa (A0%) to 0.12 MPa (A60%), inversely correlated with organic filler content. Despite the decline in mechanical performance, these bricks show potential for lightweight, ecological and low-cost construction.

Keywords: Bio-based material; Mechanical strength; Palm kernel shell powder; Sustainable building materials; Thermophysical properties; Unfired clay bricks clay.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

Declarations. Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1
Process for obtaining raw clay bricks filled with palm kernel shell powder.
Fig. 2
Fig. 2
Density results for green bricks filled with palm kernel shell powder.
Fig. 3
Fig. 3
Actual density (a) and Porosity (b) results.
Fig. 4
Fig. 4
FTIR spectra of raw bricks filled with palm kernel shell powder.
Fig. 5
Fig. 5
XRD pattern results for clay bricks loaded with palm kernel shell powder.
Fig. 6
Fig. 6
SEM images for green bricks loaded with palm kernel shell powder.
Fig. 7
Fig. 7
EDX mapping results for green bricks loaded with palm kernel shell powder.
Fig. 7
Fig. 7
EDX mapping results for green bricks loaded with palm kernel shell powder.
Fig. 8
Fig. 8
TGA (a), DTG (b) and DTA (c) analysis for clay and composite bricks incorporating palm kernel shell powder.
Fig. 9
Fig. 9
Compressive strength of mud bricks filled with palm kernel shell powder.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

References

    1. Boissinot, P. Les constructions en terre au IIème s. av. J.-C. sur l’oppidum du Baou-Roux (Bouc-Bel-Air, B.-du-Rh.). 10.3406/dam.1984.944 (1984).
    1. Banakinao, S., Drovou, S., Lolo, K. & Attipou, K. Shear strength of silty sands improved by bridelia tannins. Geomaterials14 (1), 1–11. 10.4236/gm.2024.141001 (2024).
    1. Baccour, H., Medhioub, M. & Mhiri, T. Characteristics of triassic clays and properties of Building ceramics. J. Ceramic Process. Res.13 (6), 480–488 (2012).
    1. Micheal, A. & Moussa, R. R. Investigation of the economic and environmental effect of integrating sugarcane Bagasse (SCB) fibers into cement bricks. Ain Shams Eng. J.12 (4), 3613–3623. 10.1016/j.asej.2021.04.005 (2021).
    1. Zhang, S., Zheng, C., Wang, X., He, R. & Li, S. Fabrication and characterization of recycled construction waste bricks modified with Sisal fibers. Alexandria Eng. J.105, 1–11. 10.1016/j.aej.2024.06.048 (2024).

LinkOut - more resources