The IL-12 family cytokines in neurodegenerative diseases: dual roles in neurotoxicity and neuroprotection

Abstract

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), multiple sclerosis (MS), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) are characterized by progressive neuronal loss and chronic neuroinflammation. Increasing evidence highlights the interleukin-12 (IL-12) cytokine family-including IL-12, IL-23, IL-27, and IL-35-as central regulators of immune responses in the central nervous system (CNS). IL-12 and IL-23 predominantly promote pro-inflammatory pathways by driving Th1/Th17 activity, microglial activation, and neurotoxicity, whereas IL-27 and IL-35 exert anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects through IL-10 induction and expansion of regulatory immune subsets. This review synthesizes disease-specific expression patterns and experimental findings, underscoring the dual pathogenic and protective roles of these cytokines. Therapeutic strategies targeting IL-12 family signaling have shown promise in preclinical and clinical contexts. In AD, blockade of IL-12/IL-23 reduced amyloid burden and improved cognition, while agents such as tadalafil and bergapten enhanced IL-27-mediated neuroprotection via PI3K/Akt, Wnt/β-catenin, and cGMP/PKG pathways. In MS, approaches including p40 blockade (ustekinumab, ABT-874), interferon-β therapy, hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, and B-cell depletion (ocrelizumab) variably suppressed IL-12/IL-23 and augmented IL-27/IL-35, influencing relapse rates and progression. Natural compounds such as curcumin, berberine, and vitamin D further highlight metabolic and dietary opportunities for cytokine modulation. In PD, combinatorial regimens combining herbal formulations with anti-inflammatory agents dampened IL-12-driven macrophage activation and supported dopaminergic neuron survival. Taken together, IL-12 family cytokines emerge as both biomarkers and therapeutic targets in NDs. However, context-dependent activity, blood-brain barrier constraints, and incomplete understanding-particularly of IL-35-pose translational challenges warranting further investigation.

Keywords: Cytokine signaling; IL-12 family cytokines; Molecular mechanisms; Neurodegenerative diseases; Neuroinflammation; Therapeutic targets.