The Molecular Diagnosis of Invasive Fungal Diseases with a Focus on PCR

Abstract

Background: Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is highly sensitive and specific for the rapid diagnosis of invasive fungal disease (IFD) but is not yet widely implemented due to concerns regarding limited standardisation between assays, the lack of commercial options and the absence of clear guidance on interpreting results. Objectives and Methods: This review provides an update on technical and clinical aspects of PCR for the diagnosis of the most pertinent fungal pathogens, including Aspergillus, Candida, Pneumocystis jirovecii, Mucorales spp., and endemic mycoses. Summary: Recent meta-analyses have demonstrated that quantitative PCR (qPCR) offers high sensitivity for diagnosing IFD, surpassing conventional microscopy, culture and most serological tests. The reported specificity of qPCR is likely underestimated due to comparison with imperfect reference standards with variable sensitivity. Although the very low limit of detection of qPCR can generate false positive results due to procedural contamination or patient colonisation (particularly in pulmonary specimens), the rates are comparable to those observed for biomarker testing. When interpreting qPCR results, it is essential to consider the pre-test probability, determined by the patient population, host factors, clinical presentation and risk factors. For patients with low to moderate pre-test probability, the use of sensitive molecular tests, often in conjunction with serological testing or biomarkers, can effectively exclude IFD when all tests return negative results, reducing the need for empirical antifungal therapy. Conversely, for patients with high pre-test probability and clinical features of IFD, qPCR testing on invasive specimens from the site of infection (such as tissue or bronchoalveolar lavage fluid) can confidently rule in the disease. The development of next-generation sequencing methods to detect fungal infection has the potential to enhance the diagnosis of IFD, but standardisation and optimisation are essential, with improved accessibility underpinning clinical utility.

Keywords: PCR; invasive fungal infections; molecular diagnosis; real-time PCR.

Figure 1

Potential nucleic acid sources within non-biopsy specimens. Abbreviations: DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid; IFD, invasive fungal disease; NA, nucleic acid; WBC, white blood cell.