The Impact of Environmental Factors on the Secretion of Gastrointestinal Hormones

Abstract

The enteroendocrine system of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract is the largest endocrine organ in the human body, playing a central role in the regulation of hunger, satiety, digestion, and energy homeostasis. Numerous factors-including dietary components, physical activity, and the gut microbiota-affect the secretion of GI hormones. This study aims to analyze how these factors modulate enteroendocrine function and influence systemic metabolic regulation. This review synthesizes the current scientific literature on the physiology and distribution of enteroendocrine cells and mechanisms of hormone secretion in response to macronutrients, physical activity, and microbial metabolites. Special attention is given to the interactions between gut-derived signals and central nervous system pathways involved in appetite control. Different GI hormones are secreted in specific regions of the digestive tract in response to meal composition and timing. Macronutrients, particularly during absorption, stimulate hormone release, while physical activity influences hormone concentrations, decreasing ghrelin and increasing GLP-1, PYY, and leptin levels. The gut microbiota, through fermentation and metabolite production (e.g., SCFAs and bile acids), modulates enteroendocrine activity. Species such as Akkermansia muciniphila are associated with improved gut barrier integrity and enhanced GLP-1 secretion. These combined effects contribute to appetite regulation and energy balance. Diet composition, physical activity, and gut microbiota are key modulators of gastrointestinal hormone secretion. Their interplay significantly affects appetite regulation and metabolic health. A better understanding of these relationships may support the development of personalized strategies for managing obesity and related disorders.

Keywords: CCK; GIP; GLP-1; PYY; environmental factors; gastrin; gastrointestinal hormones; ghrelin; obesity; secretin; somatostatin.

Figure 1

A flow diagram illustrating the process of article selection.

Figure 2

The impact of key nutrients on the secretion of gastrointestinal hormones. “↑”—increase secretion, “↓”—decrease secretion, and “ymbol of absence”—no consistent effect.

Figure 3

The impact of microbiota on the secretion of gastrointestinal hormones.

Figure 4

The impact of physical activity on the secretion of gastrointestinal hormones. “↑”—increased secretion; “↓”—decreased secretion.