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. 2025 Jul 26;14(15):2630.
doi: 10.3390/foods14152630.

Toxigenic Fungi and Co-Occurring Mycotoxins in Maize (Zea mayz L.) Samples from the Highlands and Coast of Ecuador

Héctor Palacios-Cabrera  1 , Juliana Fracari  2 , Marina Venturini Copetti  2 , Carlos Augusto Mallmann  2 , Marcelo Almeida  3 , María Raquel Meléndez-Jácome  3 , Wilson Vásquez-Castillo  3
Affiliations

Toxigenic Fungi and Co-Occurring Mycotoxins in Maize (Zea mayz L.) Samples from the Highlands and Coast of Ecuador

Héctor Palacios-Cabrera et al. Foods. .

Abstract

Maize is a key crop in Ecuador for both human and animal consumption. Its vulnerability to fungal contamination and mycotoxins poses risks to food safety. The aim of this study was to analyze the occurrence of fungi and mycotoxins in maize grown in different regions of Ecuador (29 localities) and postharvest factors influencing contamination. Fungal identification was performed through culturing and morphological analysis. Analysis of multi-toxins was carried out using liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Statistical analyses included PCA and linear regression models. Fungal contamination was found in 93.3% of samples; mycotoxins were present in 90%. Fusarium and Aspergillus were dominant. Fumonisins (66.6%), zearalenone (30%), aflatoxins (16.7%), and trichothecenes B (13.3%) were the most prevalent. Co-occurrence of up to three mycotoxins per sample was observed, more frequent on the coast. Grain moisture and temperature were strongly correlated with contamination levels. The study reveals widespread contamination of Ecuadorian maize, with environmental and postharvest factors playing key roles. This poses a food safety concern, highlighting the need for improved storage and monitoring systems.

Keywords: Aspergillus; Ecuador; Fusarium; maize; mycotoxins.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Samples collected in the Ecuadorian regions.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Incidence of groups of potentially toxigenic fungi and mycotoxins in maize samples collected in the coast and highlands of Ecuador.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Principal Component Analysis. (A): elbow analysis indicating the dimensions that explain the variability of the maize samples studied. (B): map of maize origin as a function of collection region (squares are centroids/regions), the bold dots represent a higher incidence in explaining variability, and the unlabeled vectors correspond to qualitative variables that were not considered in the construction of the linear combinations. (C): black-colored variables are those considered in the PCA; the labeled ones are those of greater contribution in the determination of the projection plane. (D): hierarchical grouping of the maize studied according to the variables analyzed. The color gradient corresponds to those that have the greatest incidence in explaining variability.
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