3D printing: Balancing innovation for sustainability with emerging environmental and health risks

Abstract

The rapid rise of 3D printing, both in industrial and home settings, presents emerging health and environmental risks. While 3D printing enhances sustainability by reducing waste and optimizing resource use, its impact on human health remains poorly understood. The use of metals and polymers linked to health risks, coupled with the release of inhalable particles and volatile organic compounds, raises concerns about respiratory and systemic effects. The absence of clear guidelines creates high public demand for information and limits safe implementation, particularly in schools and homes where millions of 3D printers are expected by 2030. Additionally, improper disposal of 3D printing polymer materials may exacerbate plastic pollution. This article proposes the perspective of a structured risk assessment framework set on particle emissions from industrial 3D printing. It will offer a practical tool to bridge current knowledge gaps and to inform safe practice and policy development, because immediate action is necessary to balance innovation with safety.

Keywords: Environmental health; Industrial engineering; Public health.

Graphical abstract

Figure 1

Evolution of 3D printing-related publications over the last 15 years The bar chart shows the annual number of publications from 2010 to 2025 retrieved from the Web of Science Core Collection using a combined search for terms related to 3D printing: “3D print,” “3D printing,” “3D printing technology,” “3D-printing,” “additive manufacturing,” and “three-dimensional printing.” A total of 145,850 publications were identified, highlighting a sharp increase in research output.

Figure 2

Industrial and home 3D printing in the context of emerging environmental and health risks This figure illustrates the growing use of 3D printing in both industrial and home environments, highlighting potential sources of particle and chemical emissions. It also emphasizes the associated environmental and human health risks, particularly in settings with insufficient safety measures or limited awareness of exposure hazards.

Figure 3

Powder-based industrial 3D printing and particle “leaking” spots throughput the powder life cycle Powder input largely results in emission of micron-sized feedstock particles, while high-energy production, powder recycling, machine cleaning and maintenance, and product post-procession result in the emission of feedstock and unintentionally generated (nano)particles.

Figure 4

Examples of unintentional particle emissions in metal 3D printing Left panel: scanning electron microscopy (SEM); right panel: transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images of (nano)particles unintentionally generated during industrial 3D printing with iron-based powders using laser powder bed fusion. Images courtesy of Dr. Patrik Karlsson, Örebro University, and Prof. Oldřich Benada, Institute of Microbiology, Czech Academy of Sciences.

Figure 5

Examples of chemical emissions in polymer 3D printing Left panel: common polymer materials used in 3D printing; right panel: associated volatile chemical emissions. These emissions may act through various toxicological modes of action, including oxidative stress, endocrine disruption, and genotoxicity, highlighting potential risks linked to inhalation and dermal exposure during the printing process.

Figure 6

Toward a risk assessment framework Developing a robust framework for the 3D printing industry requires interdisciplinary collaboration and continuous knowledge flow and exchange across key disciplines.

Figure 7

Interdisciplinary research framework for the risk assessment of particle emissions in industrial 3D printing The framework focuses on (1) exposure assessment by measuring particle emissions, and characterizing their physicochemical properties, and (2) hazard identification by assessing their effects on human cells and health, discovering health effect biomarkers, and establishing cohorts of exposed workers to provide a comprehensive understanding of 3D printing-associated health risks. OEL, Occupational Exposure Limits; MoA, Mode of Action; NAMs, New Approach Methodologies.

Figure 8

Implementation of the proposed risk assessment framework in a Swedish industrial 3D printing company This figure illustrates how the interdisciplinary framework is applied in an industrial setting, integrating particle exposure assessment, toxicological evaluation, and health monitoring. The approach enables the identification of exposure scenarios, relevant modes of action (MoA), and potential biomarkers, ultimately supporting safer and more sustainable 3D printing practices.