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. 2025 Aug 1;5(4):420-431.
doi: 10.1021/acspolymersau.5c00038. eCollection 2025 Aug 13.

Low-Cost, Disposable Biosensor for Detection of the Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Biomarker in Noninvasively Collected Saliva toward Diagnosis of Mental Disorders

Nathalia O Gomes  1   2 , Marcelo L Calegaro  1 , Luiz Henrique C Mattoso  2 , Sergio A S Machado  1 , Osvaldo N Oliveira Jr  3 , Paulo A Raymundo-Pereira  3
Affiliations

Low-Cost, Disposable Biosensor for Detection of the Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Biomarker in Noninvasively Collected Saliva toward Diagnosis of Mental Disorders

Nathalia O Gomes et al. ACS Polym Au. .

Abstract

The importance of early detection of neurodegenerative disorder biomarkers has grown since these biomarkers are essential for timely diagnosis, treatment, healthcare, and wellness applications. We present a cost-effective and disposable electrochemical immunosensing strip for rapid, decentralized detection of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)one of the major neurotrophins (NTs) associated with neurological and psychiatric disordersin human saliva. The salivary BDNF immunosensor strip is made on a screen-printed carbon electrode functionalized with carbon spherical shells (CSSs), polyethylenimine (PEI), and glutaraldehyde to enhance sensitivity. Through systematic optimization, the sensor achieved excellent analytical performance, with a wide dynamic detection range from 1.0 × 10-20 to 1.0 × 10-10 g mL-1, a rapid response time of under 3 min, and an ultralow detection limit of 1.0 × 10-20 g mL-1 for BDNF in human saliva. The BDNF immunosensor demonstrated high selectivity, reproducibility, robustness, stability, and long-term storage capability. At a cost of less than US$ 2.19 per unit, this disposable sensor also enabled rapid BDNF detection in saliva samples collected from healthy volunteers without interference from other salivary constituents. The environmental impact was assessed using the Analytical Eco-Scale (AES), the Analytical GREEnness Metric Approach (AGREE), and the Blue Applicability Grade Index (BAGI), which evaluates the practicality ("blueness") of the device. These assessments confirmed the sustainability of the disposable BDNF immunosensor strip. This device provides a rapid, efficient, cost-effective, and reliable method for the decentralized, noninvasive salivary analysis of BDNF, enabling broader applications in healthcare, wellness monitoring, and medical diagnostics related to the neurotrophin family of biomarkers.

Keywords: BDNF; diagnosis; disposable biosensors; human saliva; major depressive disorder (MDD); therapeutic drug monitoring.

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Figures

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1
Concept and schematic representation of a disposable immunosensor strip for decentralized analysis of salivary BDNF, highlighting the procedure to detect salivary BDNF including saliva sampling, testing, and analysis on a device.
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2
Effects of the CSS on matrix layer configuration to detect BDNF. Nyquist responses of the SPCE/CSS/PEI/Glu/Ab/Et strip in (A), the SPCE/PEI/Glu/Ab/Et (without the CSS) strip in (B), and the corresponding BDNF calibration plots in (C) to successive levels of BDNF detection ranging from 1.0 × 10–20 to 1.0 × 10–10 g mL–1 in 0.1 M phosphate buffer solution.
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3
Features of the CSS. (A) Raman spectrum. (B) ATR-FTIR spectrum. (C) Powder XRD pattern. High-resolution X-ray photoelectron spectra for C 1s in panel (D) and for O 1s in panel (E). Black dots and red lines refer to the experimental data, and colored peaks represent the fitted spectra. (F) TEM image of the CSS. (G) FEG-SEM image and corresponding elemental mapping data of carbon (H) and oxygen (I) for the CSS.
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Impact of biorecognition molecule immobilization time and anti-BDNF concentration to detect BDNF. Nyquist responses of immunosensing strips with BDNF concentrations ranging between 1.0 × 10–20 and 1.0 × 10–10 g mL–1 in 0.1 M phosphate buffer solution with corresponding calibration plots in different antibody amounts immobilized at the sensor strip surface varying from 0.5 to 2.0 μg L–1 (A) and in different immobilization periods (B).
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Performance of the BDNF immunosensor strips in a 0.1 M phosphate buffer solution. (A) Reproducibility analysis with different devices. Slope responses from analytical curves were obtained using three immunosensor strips for BDNF detection ranging from 1.0 × 10–20 to 1.0 × 10–10 g mL–1 in 0.1 M phosphate buffer solution. (B) Long-term storage stability study throughout 60 days. Slope responses from analytical curves were obtained in triplicate with immunosensor strips for BDNF detection from 1.0 × 10–20 to 1.0 × 10–10 g mL–1. (C) In vitro selectivity analysis against potential interfering molecules. (D) Nyquist response of the immunosensor strips on potential interferents molecules found in human salivary samples such as glucose, NaCl, paracetamol, BSA, SARS-CoV-2 S protein, urea, uric acid, ascorbic acid, and lactate in 0.1 M phosphate buffer. Nyquist plots were recorded in 5.0 mM K4[Fe­(CN)6] + K3[Fe­(CN)6] in 0.1 M phosphate buffer. The interferent concentration and BDNF target were fixed at 1 μg mL–1 and 1.0 × 10–17 g mL–1, respectively.
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Salivary sample analysis with increased BDNF levels. Nyquist responses of the BDNF immunosensor strip in concentrations ranging from 1.0 × 10–20 to 1.0 × 10–10 g mL–1 with the corresponding BDNF analytical curve. Each Nyquist plot corresponds to a concentration of BDNF.
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Greenness and blueness assessment of the electroanalytical method using a BDNF immunosensor strip. (A) Agree metrics and (B) blue applicability grade index (BAGI) pictograms for the electroanalytical method using an immunosensor strip to detect BDNF in human saliva samples.
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