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. 2025 Aug 21;20(8):e0329772.
doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0329772. eCollection 2025.

Estimating the size of hard to sample populations: A comprehensive study on female sex workers and sexually exploited minors in Rwanda using privatized network sampling in 2023

Elysée Tuyishime  1 , Catherine Kayitesi  2 , Eric Remera  3 , Samuel Sewava Malamba  4 , Ignace Habimana Kabano  1 , Angela Unna Chukwu  1   5
Affiliations

Estimating the size of hard to sample populations: A comprehensive study on female sex workers and sexually exploited minors in Rwanda using privatized network sampling in 2023

Elysée Tuyishime et al. PLoS One. .

Abstract

Introduction: Female sex workers (FSW) are at increased risk of HIV and other STI. In addition, the burden of HIV infection among this group is much higher when compared to adult females in the general population. Estimating the number of FSW helps HIV/STI prevention through program design, planning, and implementation. The aims of this study are to provide the most up to date national population size estimates (PSE) and geographical distribution of female sex workers and sexually exploited minors in Rwanda. Having population size estimates of the HIV-mostly affected population, FSW in this case provides the basis for determining the denominators to assess HIV program performance towards national and global targets of controlling the HIV epidemic among the FSW population.

Methods: Data were collected from May 8th to June 24th, 2023, across 10 study sites countywide. Privatized network sampling (PNS) was used, which is a population size estimation method that uses the network information collected within a bio-behavioral survey (BBS) that used respondent-driven sampling (RDS). To estimate the FSW and sexually exploited minors' population size, three PNS estimators were used: Cross-Sample, Cross-Alter, and Cross-Network.

Results: The national-level FSW population size was estimated at 98,587 (95% CI: 82,978-114,196), corresponding to 2.3% of the total adult female population aged 15 years and above in Rwanda. We estimated that in the City of Kigali, 5.3%, in the West Province, 2.2%, in the East and South province, 1.7% each, and in the North province 1.6% of adult female population 15 years of age and older who were FSW.

Conclusion: This was the first time that PNS was implemented as a PSE method in Rwanda, adding to the emerging tools that we have in the hard-to-reach PSE field. The PSE provides fundamental information to design, plan, and implement programs for FSW at the provincial level in Rwanda. Furthermore, these estimates will help to generate positive policy changes and to advocate for resources that will help in the effort to achieve a sustained HIV epidemic control in the country.

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Conflict of interest statement

I have read the journal's policy and the authors of this manuscript have no competing interests.

Figures

Fig 1
Fig 1. Recruitment tree by province, Rwanda FSW PNS 2023.
Fig 2
Fig 2. Eastern Province recruitment tree, Rwanda FSW PNS 2023.
Fig 3
Fig 3. City of Kigali recruitment tree, Rwanda FSW PNS 2023.
Fig 4
Fig 4. Northern province recruitment tree, Rwanda FSW PNS 2023.
Fig 5
Fig 5. Southern province recruitment tree, Rwanda FSW PNS 2023.
Fig 6
Fig 6. Western province recruitment tree, Rwanda FSW PNS 2023.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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