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. 2025 Aug 25;15(1):31239.
doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-12052-0.

The impacts of indoor residual spraying with bendiocarb and pirimiphos-methyl on allelic frequencies of kdr and ace-1 mutations in central Senegal

El Hadji Diouf  1 , Massila Wagué Senghor  2 , Mamadou Demba Sy  2 , Assane Ndiaye  2 , Abdoulaye Konaté  2 , Omar Niang  2 , Ousmane Faye  2 , Ibrahima Dia  3 , El Hadji Amadou Niang  2 , Lassana Konaté  2
Affiliations

The impacts of indoor residual spraying with bendiocarb and pirimiphos-methyl on allelic frequencies of kdr and ace-1 mutations in central Senegal

El Hadji Diouf et al. Sci Rep. .

Abstract

The use of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) and indoor residual spraying (IRS) has been the primary vector control strategy in Sénégal since 2007, significantly reducing the malaria burden. However, the emergence insecticide resistance in malaria vectors threatens the effectiveness of these interventions. This study aimed to assess susceptibility, spatiotemporal variations, and the impact of IRS with bendiocarb and pirimiphos-methyl on allele frequencies and resistant genotypes of kdr and ace-1 in An. gambae s.l. in IRS and control zones in central Sénégal between 2013 and 2014. Larvae of An. gambiae s.l. were collected from four IRS and two control districts in central Sénégal. Emerging adult females were exposed to insecticide-impregnated papers containing pyrethroids, DDT, dieldrin, bendiocarb and pirimiphos-methyl over two years. Species identification and resistance markers analysis were performed using PCR, targeting kdr mutations (Vsgc-1014F and Vsgc-1014S) and ace-1 mutations. Susceptibility test revealed resistance to permethrin and deltamethrin in at least three of the four IRS districts, while control districts showed resistance or suspected resistance to these insecticides. Resistance to DDT and dieldrin was detected in all districts. However, An. gambiae s.l. populations from IRS districts remained susceptible to bendiocarb and pirimiphos-methyl. Molecular identification confirmed the presence of three species (An. arabiensis, An. gambiae s.s. and An. coluzzii) along with hybrids. An. arabiensis populations collected in IRS areas showed a significantly lower frequency of the 1014F allele than those in control areas.

Keywords: An. gambiae s.l.; Kdr; ace-1; Bendiocarb; Control; Genotypes; IRS; Malaria; Pyrethroids; Resistance; Sénégal.

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Conflict of interest statement

Declarations. Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1
Status of An. gambiae s.l. populations exposed to pyrethroids in the PID and control districts in 2013 and 2014, Green line: minimum susceptibility threshold and red line: maximum resistance threshold.
Fig. 2
Fig. 2
Susceptibility status of An. gambiae s.l. populations to DDT and dieldrin in IRS and control districts in 2013 and 2014, Green line: minimum susceptibility threshold and red line: maximum resistance threshold.
Fig. 3
Fig. 3
Susceptibility status of An. gambiae s.l. populations to bendiocarb and pirimiphos-methyl in IRS and control districts in 2013 and 2014, Green line: minimum susceptibility threshold and red line: maximum resistance threshold.
Fig. 4
Fig. 4
The map of Senegal showing the study sites; IRS and Control zones in 2013 and 2014 (software: QGIS Desktop 2.2.0).
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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