Mucus-derived biomaterial dressings: a novel approach to accelerate wound healing

Abstract

Wound management remains a clinical challenge due to the complexity of healing processes. Traditional dressings with passive protection mechanisms and modern synthetic alternatives often fail to recapitulate the dynamic biological interactions in the wound microenvironment. Mucus is a naturally widely available biomaterial, exhibiting superior bioactive properties as a viscoelastic gel-like substance. Notably, natural mucus derived from diverse biological sources has garnered significant attention as advanced wound dressings. This review explores the potential of natural mucus from animals, plants, microorganisms, and other complex sources as multifunctional wound healing platforms. By analyzing the therapeutic effects of natural mucus, we evaluate its key molecular mechanisms and performance metrics against clinical wound dressings. This establishes a scientific framework for mucus-inspired biomaterials design. The comprehensive assessment not only reveals the untapped potential of renewable biological resources in developing eco-friendly, high-performance wound care alternatives but also provides theoretical guidance for developing next-generation dressings with bioactive, self-adaptive, and environmentally responsive characteristics.

Keywords: adhesion; mucus; natural biomaterial; regeneration; wound healing.

Figure 1

Schematic illustration of natural mucus in the treatment of diverse wound healing models. Created with BioRender.com.

Figure 2

Summarizing the wound healing mechanisms of natural mucus. Created with BioRender.com.

Figure 3

Skin cross-section and wound healing phases. A) Cross-sectional anatomy of skin. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2023, John Wiley and Sons. B) Principal stages of wound healing and evaluation criteria at different wound healing stages. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2024, Springer Nature.

Figure 4

Self-assembled SSAD hydrogel: mechanism and adhesion. A) Preparation process of the SSAD powders and the porous structures of the corresponding hydrogels. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2021, John Wiley and Sons. B) Self-assembled amphiphilic granular SSAD with strong wet adhesion. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2022, Elsevier. C) The schematic mechanism interpretation of hydrogel formation and adhesion of SSAD , . Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2019, John Wiley and Sons. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2022, Elsevier. D) Ex vivo adhesive properties of SSAD with CAs and fibrin glues. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2019, John Wiley and Sons. E) Schematic illustration of dry SSAD particulates' self-assembly and adhesion mechanism in water. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2022, Elsevier.

Figure 5

Snail mucus bioactivity and wound healing mechanism. A) Snail mucus and main bioactive glycosaminoglycan. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2023, Elsevier. B) d-SMG derived from two snail species. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2023, Springer Nature. C) Schematic interpretation of the mechanism d-SMG in wound healing. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2023, Springer Nature.

Figure 6

Mussel byssus attachment system: structure, function, and molecular interactions. A) The intricate structure of a mussel's byssus attachment system, including the generator region that produces the stem and its root. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2023, The American Association for the Advancement of Science. B) How wave forces acting on the mussel are transmitted through the byssus into the stem and generator. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2023, The American Association for the Advancement of Science. C) Schematic model of the secretion process during plaque formation , . Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2017, Springer Nature. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2021, The American Association for the Advancement of Science. D) Overview of the proposed different adhesive and cohesive molecular interactions found in mussels. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2018, John Wiley and Sons. E) The mussel byssal adhesion manifests through a dense protein framework. Mfp-1 functions as an outer cuticle for thread protection. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2018, John Wiley and Sons.

Figure 7

Okra mucilage: structural, chemical, and mechanical evaluations. A) Picture of okra plant and okra internal structure. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2021, Springer Nature. B) Okra mucilage and mucilage freeze-dried powder. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2022, John Wiley and Sons. C) Comparison of adhesion between okra mucilage and fibrin glue on glass and pig skin. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2022, John Wiley and Sons. D) Extraction and isolation of mucilage from okra pods. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2020, Elsevier. E) Chemical structure of okra mucilage polysaccharide. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2020, Elsevier. F) Load-bearing test, underwater adhesion test and SEM images of okra mucilage. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2022, John Wiley and Sons.

Figure 8

Comprehensive analysis of aloe mucilage: from extraction to biological properties. A) Extraction and isolation routes of natural aloe mucilage. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2020, Elsevier. B) Picture of aloe plant and aloe internal structure. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2023, MDPI. C) Three species of aloe mucilages for cell growth and wound healing promotion. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2017, Elsevier. D) The main chemical components of aloe vera mucilage. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2023, MDPI. E) The molecular mechanism of moisture retention properties of aloe mucilage. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2024, Elsevier.

Figure 9

Multifaceted biological activities and molecular mechanisms of propolis. A) The images of stingless bees and their propolis. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2020, Elsevier. B) The main mechanisms of propolis in promoting wound healing. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2015, Oxford University Press. C) Main functional compounds of propolis. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2022, John Wiley and Sons. D) Mechanism of propolis action as anti-bacterial agent Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2018, Elsevier. E) The molecular mechanism of the propolis-mediated protective effect during the oxidative stress Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2018, Elsevier. F) Antibacterial mechanism of flavonoids in propolis Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2018, Elsevier.

Figure 10

Comprehensive fabrication and properties of BC-based wound dressings. A) Various steps involved in the fabrication of BC-based materials. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2021, John Wiley and Sons. B) The steps involved in the production of a BC-based wound dressing. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2019, John Wiley and Sons. C) Chemical structure of BC. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2021, Elsevier. D) Metabolic diagram of BC produced by Acetobacter. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2021, Elsevier. E) Summary of the processes involved in BC production. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2019, John Wiley and Sons.

Figure 11

Selected cases of natural mucus utilization in routine skin wound healing. A). MAP-derived bioadhesive coacervates are utilized to facilitate wound healing following full-thickness skin transplants. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2022, Elsevier. B). BC microspheres promote wound healing. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2016, John Wiley and Sons. C). In vivo adhesion and healing effects of SNM. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2023, Springer Nature. D). In vivo adhesion and healing effects of SSAD. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2019, John Wiley and Sons.

Figure 12

Selected cases of natural mucus utilization in diabetic wound healing. A). Okra mucilage-loaded gel promotes diabetic wound healing , . Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2023, Elsevier. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2023, Elsevier. B). Aloe vera mucilage-derived antimicrobial nanofiber mats to promote chronic wound healing. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2023, Elsevier.

Figure 13

Selected cases of natural mucus utilization in burn wound healing. A) Mussel-inspired dopamine-mediated adhesive and antioxidant hydrogel for advanced burn wound healing. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2022, Springer Nature. B) Mussel-inspired catechol-functionalized pectin hydrogel: a NIR-enhanced thermo-responsive composite for accelerated burn wound healing. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2024, Elsevier.

Figure 14

Strategies for advanced modifications of BC for infected wound healing. A) Chemical crosslinking and functional group integration in BC for enhanced wound healing. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2022, Elsevier. B) HACC-infused BC dressings: integration of antimicrobial agents and bioactive compounds in BC. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2021, Elsevier. C) Photothermal therapy and functional modifications of BC for complex wound healing strategies. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2024, John Wiley and Sons. D) The efficacy of modified BC dressings on deep second-degree scald wounds in bama miniature pigs. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2022, Elsevier.

Figure 15

Selected cases of natural mucus utilization in oral ulcer. A) Effect of SSAD on the healing of oral palate wounds. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2021, John Wiley and Sons. B) Effects of SSAD and SSAD+AG on oral palate mucosal injury in SD diabetic rats. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2022, Elsevier.