Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
. 2025 Aug 21;15(8):895.
doi: 10.3390/brainsci15080895.

Associations Among Developmental Coordination Disorder Traits, Neurodevelopmental Difficulties and University Personality Inventory Scores in Undergraduate Students at a Japanese National University: A Cross-Sectional Correlational Study

Masanori Yasunaga  1 , Ryutaro Higuchi  1 , Keita Kusunoki  2 , Naoto Mochizuki  1
Affiliations

Associations Among Developmental Coordination Disorder Traits, Neurodevelopmental Difficulties and University Personality Inventory Scores in Undergraduate Students at a Japanese National University: A Cross-Sectional Correlational Study

Masanori Yasunaga et al. Brain Sci. .

Abstract

Background/objectives: Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) commonly co-occurs with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and specific learning disorder (SLD), affecting academics, mental health, and lifestyle. Although screeners such as the Adolescents and Adults Coordination Questionnaire (AAC-Q) are widely used elsewhere, recognition and support for DCD in Japan remain limited. This study examined associations among DCD traits, ADHD/ASD-related difficulties, learning difficulties, mental health difficulties, and lifestyle factors in university students.

Methods: We conducted a web-based survey of 16,295 students; responses from 527 were analyzed. The instruments used for the analysis included the AAC-Q, short forms of ADHD and ASD Difficulty Scales, the 7-item Learning Difficulty Scale for Postsecondary Students and 10-item Scale for Childhood Learning Difficulties, and the University Personality Inventory (UPI). Nonparametric and Spearman's rank correlations were performed.

Results: DCD traits were observed at 7.4% (AAC-Q ≥ 32). This is a screen-positive proportion only. AAC-Q scores correlated strongly with ADHD difficulties (r = 0.65), moderately to strongly with ASD difficulties (r = 0.55), and moderately with mental health difficulties measured by the UPI (r = 0.41).

Conclusions: These findings suggest that identifying DCD traits at university entry may be associated with greater student self-understanding and improved access to appropriate support. They support targeted DCD screening alongside ADHD/ASD screening at university entry, rather than universal screening.

Keywords: attention deficit hyperactivity disorder; developmental coordination disorder; higher education institutions; neurodevelopmental disorders; trait screening.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Flow chart of survey data collection. Exclusion criteria: ≥30 years of age, visual impairment, physical disability, chronic illness, or other medical conditions.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

References

    1. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5(R)) 5th ed. American Psychiatric Publishing; Washington, DC, USA: 2013.
    1. Blank R., Barnett A.L., Cairney J., Green D., Kirby A., Polatajko H., Rosenblum S., Smits-Engelsman B., Sugden D., Wilson P., et al. International clinical practice recommendations on the definition, diagnosis, assessment, intervention, and psychosocial aspects of developmental coordination disorder. Dev. Med. Child Neurol. 2019;61:242–285. doi: 10.1111/dmcn.14132. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Higashionna T., Iwanaga R., Tokunaga A., Nakai T.K., Nakane H., Tanaka G. Relationship between motor coordination, cognitive abilities, and academic achievement in Japanese children with neurodevelopmental disorders. Hong Kong J. Occup. Ther. 2017;30:49–55. doi: 10.1016/j.hkjot.2017.10.002. - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Hill E., Brown D., Sorgardt K.S. preliminary investigation quality-of-life satisfaction reports emerging adults without developmental coordination disorder. J. Adult Dev. 2011;18:130–134. doi: 10.1007/s10804-011-9122-2. - DOI
    1. Kirby A., Sugden D., Beveridge S., Edwards L. Developmental co-ordination disorder (DCD) in adolescents and adults in further and higher education. J. Res. Spec. Educ. Needs. 2008;8:120–131. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-3802.2008.00111.x. - DOI

LinkOut - more resources