The Development and Optimization of Extrusion-Based 3D Food Printing Inks Using Composite Starch Gels Enriched with Various Proteins and Hydrocolloids

Abstract

This study presents a comprehensive evaluation of starch-based gel formulations enriched with proteins and hydrocolloids for extrusion-based 3D food printing (3DFP). Food inks were prepared using corn or potato starch, protein concentrates (fava, whey, rice, pea and soya), and hydrocolloids (κ-carrageenan, arabic gum, xanthan gum, and carboxy methylcellulose). Their rheological, mechanical, and textural properties were systematically analyzed to assess printability. Among all formulations, those containing κ-carrageenan consistently demonstrated superior viscoelastic behavior (G' > 4000 Pa), optimal tan δ values (0.096-0.169), and yield stress conducive to stable extrusion. These inks also achieved high structural fidelity (93-96% accuracy) and favourable textural attributes such as increased hardness and chewiness. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations further validated the inks' performances by linking pressure and velocity profiles with rheological parameters. FTIR analysis revealed that gel strengthening was primarily driven by non-covalent interactions, such as hydrogen bonding and electrostatic effects. The integration of empirical measurements and simulation provided a robust framework for evaluating and optimizing printable food gels. These findings contribute to the advancement of personalized and functional 3D-printed foods through data-driven formulation design.

Keywords: 3D food printing; composite starch gels; computational fluid dynamics; printability.

Figure 1

Flow curves of the food ink formulations based on corn starch (a–e) and potato starch (f–j) for fava bean protein, soya protein, rice protein, pea protein, and whey protein.

Figure 2

Mechanical spectra of the food ink formulations based on corn starch (a–e) and potato starch (f–j) for fava bean protein, soya protein, rice protein, pea protein, and whey protein.

Figure 3

Texture Profile Analysis parameters of the food inks. Bars sharing different letters within the same textural attribute are significantly different at p < 0.05.

Figure 4

Chromatic parameters evaluation of the food inks. Bars sharing different letters within the same chromatic parameter are significantly different at p < 0.05.

Figure 5

Dimensional printing deviation (%) and printing accuracy evaluation of food inks.

Figure 6

Velocity distribution profile for food ink formulations with the best printability.

Figure 7

Pressure distribution profile for the food ink formulations with best printability.

Figure 8

FTIR spectra of the food inks. (a) Full spectra in the range 4000–400 cm⁻¹. (b) Magnified view of the spectral region from 1060 to 960 cm⁻¹ for all food inks.

Figure 9

Overview of the extrusion 3D-printing equipment manufactured for the purpose of this study. (a) front view of custom-made extrusion 3D printer setup, (b) magnified illustration of the extrusion syringe system, (c) dimensional design of the printing syringe.