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. 2025 Aug 9;11(8):626.
doi: 10.3390/gels11080626.

Synthesis, Characterization, and Properties of Polyvinyl Alcohol/Jackfruit Peel Carboxymethylcellulose/Graphene Oxide/Kaolin Composite Hydrogels

Shumin Liu  1 , Jing Ma  1 , Fuqi Yang  1 , Hailin Ye  1 , Yu Liang  1 , Yijia Deng  1 , Jianrong Li  2 , Rundong Wang  1
Affiliations

Synthesis, Characterization, and Properties of Polyvinyl Alcohol/Jackfruit Peel Carboxymethylcellulose/Graphene Oxide/Kaolin Composite Hydrogels

Shumin Liu et al. Gels. .

Abstract

This study presents an environmentally benign composite hydrogel system by combining polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) with carboxymethyl cellulose derived from jackfruit peel waste (JCMC), subsequently reinforced with graphene oxide (GO) and Kaolin nanoparticles for enhanced Congo red (CR) adsorption. The structural properties of the synthesized hydrogels were comprehensively characterized using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). FTIR analysis confirmed hydrogel formation through hydrogen bonding interactions, while XRD and SEM revealed the uniform dispersion of GO and Kaolin within the polymer matrix, resulting in an improved adsorption performance. Furthermore, the adsorption efficiency of the composite hydrogels was systematically evaluated under varying conditions, including solution pH, contact time, temperature, and initial CR concentration. Optimal CR removal (92.3%) was achieved at pH 8.0, with equilibrium attained within 90 min. The adsorption kinetics were best fitted by the pseudo-second-order model (R2 = 0.9998), confirming a chemisorption-dominated process. The equilibrium adsorption data were accurately described by the Langmuir isotherm model, indicating monolayer coverage with an exceptional maximum capacity of 200.80 mg/g. These findings highlight the superior adsorption performance of the PVA/JCMC/GO/Kaolin hydrogels, attributed to their tailored physicochemical properties and synergistic interactions among components. This study offers both sustainable jackfruit peel waste valorization and an effective solution for anionic dye removal in wastewater treatment.

Keywords: Congo red adsorption; carboxymethyl cellulose; composite hydrogels; graphene oxide; jackfruit peel.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
FTIR spectra of PVA/JCMC/GO/Kaolin composite hydrogels and the initial components (JCMC, PVA, GO, and Kaolin).
Figure 2
Figure 2
XRD patterns of PVA/JCMC/GO/Kaolin composite hydrogels and the initial components (JCMC, PVA, GO, and Kaolin).
Figure 3
Figure 3
The SEM images of PVA/JCMC/GO/Kaolin composite hydrogels and the initial components (JCMC, PVA, GO, and Kaolin).
Figure 4
Figure 4
Effect of (a) solution pH, (b) contact time, (c) adsorption temperature, and (d) initial Congo red concentration on the CR removal efficiency and adsorption capacity of PVA/JCMC/GO/Kaolin composite hydrogels. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences among groups at p < 0.05.
Figure 5
Figure 5
Stimulated curves of (a) intraparticle diffusion, (b) pseudo-first-order, and (c) pseudo-second-order kinetic models for CR adsorption of PVA/JCMC/GO/Kaolin composite hydrogels.
Figure 6
Figure 6
Stimulated curves of (a) Langmuir and (b) Freundlich, (c) Dubinin–Radushkevitch, and (d) Temkin models for CR adsorption of PVA/JCMC/GO/Kaolin composite hydrogels.
Figure 7
Figure 7
Van’t Hoff plot of lnKc versus 1/T for CR adsorption of PVA/JCMC/GO/Kaolin composite hydrogels.
Figure 8
Figure 8
Schematic illustration of the multiple adsorption interactions between Congo red (CR) and the PVA/JCMC/GO/Kaolin composite hydrogel.
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