Maillard Reaction-Derived Carbon Nanodots: Food-Origin Nanomaterials with Emerging Functional and Biomedical Potential

Abstract

The Maillard reaction (MR), a non-enzymatic interaction between reducing sugars and amino compounds, plays a pivotal role in developing the flavor, color, and aroma of thermally processed foods. Beyond its culinary relevance, the MR gives rise to a structurally diverse array of compounds, including a novel class of fluorescent nanomaterials known as carbon nanodots (CNDs). These Maillard-derived CNDs, although primarily incidental in food systems, exhibit physicochemical characteristics-such as aqueous solubility, biocompatibility, and tunable fluorescence-that are similar to engineered CNDs currently explored in biomedical fields. While CNDs synthesized through hydrothermal or pyrolytic methods are well-documented for drug delivery and imaging applications, no studies to date have demonstrated the use of Maillard-derived CNDs specifically in drug delivery. This review examines the chemistry of the Maillard reaction, the formation mechanisms and characteristics of food-based CNDs, and their potential functional applications in food safety, bioactivity, and future biomedical use. Additionally, it critically evaluates the health implications of Maillard reaction products (MRPs), including both beneficial antioxidants and harmful by-products such as advanced glycation end-products (AGEs). This integrated perspective highlights the dual role of MR in food quality and human health, while identifying key research gaps needed to harness the full potential of food-origin nanomaterials.

Keywords: advanced glycation end products; antioxidants; bioactive compounds; carbon nanodots; drug delivery; food processing; heat-induced reactions; maillard reaction; melanoidins; nanomaterials.

Figure 1

Impact of Maillard Reaction Control on (A) Food Quality (e.g., flavor, color, antioxidant activity) and (B) Health Risk (e.g., formation of AGEs, acrylamide).

Figure 2

The main stages and products of MR.

Figure 3

The summarization of the factors affecting MR, including the (A) whole food matrix and (B) processing conditions.

Figure 4

A novel compound formed through the Maillard reaction (MR) and some future aspects.

Figure 5

The key steps of the future research and development (R&D).