Exploitation of Apulian Salicornia europaea L. via NADES-UAE: Extraction, Antioxidant Activity and Antimicrobial Potential

Abstract

Salicornia europaea L. is a spontaneous halophytic plant, widespread in coastal environments, recognized for its high polyphenol content and bioactivities. In this study, a sustainable extraction strategy was developed by coupling natural deep eutectic solvents (NADESs) with ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) to recover bioactive compounds from autochthonous S. europaea collected in the Apulia region of southern Italy. Sixty-one NADES combinations were screened using COSMOtherm software, based on the predicted solubility of isorhamnetin, the major flavonol in Salicornia spp, to identify optimal hydrogen-bond donor (HBD) and acceptor (HBA) pairs. Six selected and prepared NADESs (B:CA, B:Suc, ChCl:U, ChCl:Xil, CA:Glc and Pro:MA) were used to extract S. europaea, and the resulting extracts were evaluated for total phenolic content (TPC), antioxidant capacity (DPPH, ABTS, FRAP) and antibacterial activity against four ATCC bacterial strains (Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus). Among the tested extracts, Pro:MA exhibited the highest TPC (6.79 mg GAE/g) and interesting antioxidant activity (DPPH IC₅₀ = 0.09 mg GAE/g; ABTS = 8.12 mg TE/g; FRAP = 2.41 mg TE/g). In the antibacterial assays, the Pro:MA extract demonstrated the highest activity, with minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) ranging from 0.1% to 0.4% v/v and minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBCs) from 0.2% to 0.8% v/v. In addition, the Pro:MA extract maintained TPC stability over a 90-day storage period. These findings support the NADES-UAE system as a green and efficient approach for the recovery of bioactive compounds and for the valorization of halophyte plants, such as S. europaea, with promising ready-to-use applications in the food, pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical sectors.

Keywords: Salicornia europaea L.; antimicrobial; antioxidants; natural deep eutectic solvents; polyphenols; ultrasound-assisted extraction.