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. 2025 Aug 13;30(16):3367.
doi: 10.3390/molecules30163367.

Exploitation of Apulian Salicornia europaea L. via NADES-UAE: Extraction, Antioxidant Activity and Antimicrobial Potential

Francesco Limongelli  1 , Antonella Maria Aresta  2 , Roberta Tardugno  1 , Maria Lisa Clodoveo  3 , Alexia Barbarossa  1 , Alessia Carocci  1 , Carlo Zambonin  2 , Pasquale Crupi  4 , Manuela Panić  5 , Filomena Corbo  1 , Ivana Radojčić Redovniković  5
Affiliations

Exploitation of Apulian Salicornia europaea L. via NADES-UAE: Extraction, Antioxidant Activity and Antimicrobial Potential

Francesco Limongelli et al. Molecules. .

Abstract

Salicornia europaea L. is a spontaneous halophytic plant, widespread in coastal environments, recognized for its high polyphenol content and bioactivities. In this study, a sustainable extraction strategy was developed by coupling natural deep eutectic solvents (NADESs) with ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) to recover bioactive compounds from autochthonous S. europaea collected in the Apulia region of southern Italy. Sixty-one NADES combinations were screened using COSMOtherm software, based on the predicted solubility of isorhamnetin, the major flavonol in Salicornia spp, to identify optimal hydrogen-bond donor (HBD) and acceptor (HBA) pairs. Six selected and prepared NADESs (B:CA, B:Suc, ChCl:U, ChCl:Xil, CA:Glc and Pro:MA) were used to extract S. europaea, and the resulting extracts were evaluated for total phenolic content (TPC), antioxidant capacity (DPPH, ABTS, FRAP) and antibacterial activity against four ATCC bacterial strains (Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus). Among the tested extracts, Pro:MA exhibited the highest TPC (6.79 mg GAE/g) and interesting antioxidant activity (DPPH IC50 = 0.09 mg GAE/g; ABTS = 8.12 mg TE/g; FRAP = 2.41 mg TE/g). In the antibacterial assays, the Pro:MA extract demonstrated the highest activity, with minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) ranging from 0.1% to 0.4% v/v and minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBCs) from 0.2% to 0.8% v/v. In addition, the Pro:MA extract maintained TPC stability over a 90-day storage period. These findings support the NADES-UAE system as a green and efficient approach for the recovery of bioactive compounds and for the valorization of halophyte plants, such as S. europaea, with promising ready-to-use applications in the food, pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical sectors.

Keywords: Salicornia europaea L.; antimicrobial; antioxidants; natural deep eutectic solvents; polyphenols; ultrasound-assisted extraction.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Total phenolic content (TPC, mg GAE/g) in S. europaea NADES (6) and EtOH 50% conventional extracts. TPC values are expressed as the means (n = 3). Different letters within a column indicate significant differences between samples at p < 0.05.
Figure 2
Figure 2
DPPH (IC50 mg GAE/g) results of S. europaea NADES-UAE (6) and conventional EtOH 50% UAE (1) extracts. IC50 is expressed as the means (n = 3). Different letters within a column indicate significant differences between samples at p < 0.05.
Figure 3
Figure 3
ABTS (mg TE/g) results of S. europaea NADES-UAE (6) and conventional EtOH 50% UAE (1) extracts. Values are expressed as the means (n = 3). Different letters within a column indicate significant differences between samples at p < 0.05.
Figure 4
Figure 4
FRAP (mg TE/g) results of S. europaea NADES-UAE (6) and conventional EtOH 50% UAE (1) extracts. Values are expressed as the means ± SD (n = 3). Different letters within a column indicate significant differences between samples at p < 0.05.
Figure 5
Figure 5
Degradation curve of total phenolic content (TPC) monitored over 90 days at 25 °C ± 2 °C. Results are expressed as the means (n = 3).
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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