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. 2025 Aug 20;30(16):3428.
doi: 10.3390/molecules30163428.

Innovative Integrated Model of Industrial Wastewater Treatment with the Circular Use of Cerium Compounds as Multifunctional Coagulants: Comprehensive Assessment of the Process and Environmental and Economic Aspects

Paweł Lejwoda  1 , Barbara Białecka  2 , Anna Śliwińska  1 , Piotr Krawczyk  1 , Maciej Thomas  3
Affiliations

Innovative Integrated Model of Industrial Wastewater Treatment with the Circular Use of Cerium Compounds as Multifunctional Coagulants: Comprehensive Assessment of the Process and Environmental and Economic Aspects

Paweł Lejwoda et al. Molecules. .

Abstract

This article presents an innovative method for phosphate(V) removal from industrial wastewater using cerium(III) chloride as a coagulant, integrated with reagent recovery. The process combines coagulation, acid extraction, and multistage recovery of cerium and phosphorus, enabling partial reagent loop closure. Based on our previously published studies, at an optimised dose (81.9 mg Ce3+/L), phosphate(V) removal reached 99.86% and total phosphorus (sum of all phosphorus forms as elemental P), 99.56%, and 99.94% of the added cerium was retained in sludge. Reductions were also observed for TSS (96.67%), turbidity (98.18%), and COD (81.86%). The sludge (101.5 g Ce/kg, 22.2 g P/kg) was extracted with HCl, transferring 99.6% of cerium and 97.5% of phosphorus to the solution. Cerium was recovered as cerium(III) oxalate and thermally decomposed to cerium(IV) oxide. Redissolution in HCl and H2O2 yielded cerium(III) chloride (97.0% recovery and 98.6% purity). The HCl used for extraction can be regenerated on-site from chlorine and hydrogen obtained from gas streams, improving material efficiency. Life cycle assessment (LCA) showed environmental benefits related to eutrophication reduction but burdens from reagent use (notably HCl and oxalic acid). Although costlier than conventional precipitation, this method may suit large-scale applications requiring high phosphorus removal, low sludge, and alignment with circular economy goals.

Keywords: cerium coagulants; industrial wastewater treatment; life cycle assessment; multifunctional coagulants; rare earth elements.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Conceptual diagram of wastewater treatment with cerium coagulant recirculation.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Carbon footprint.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Normalised environmental impact results via the ReCiPe 2016 midpoint (H/A) method.
Figure 4
Figure 4
System boundaries.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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