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. 2025 Sep 5.
doi: 10.1097/HTR.0000000000001091. Online ahead of print.

Patterns of Post-Concussive Symptoms Following Mild Traumatic Brain Injury: Longitudinal Data in Children and Adults to Examine Sex Differences Across the Life Span

Skye King  1 , Marilien Marzolla, Caroline van Heugten, Lisanne van Stratum-Bosma, Irene Renaud, Melloney Wijenberg, Christine Resch
Affiliations

Patterns of Post-Concussive Symptoms Following Mild Traumatic Brain Injury: Longitudinal Data in Children and Adults to Examine Sex Differences Across the Life Span

Skye King et al. J Head Trauma Rehabil. .

Abstract

Objective: To examine sex- and age-related differences in patterns of post-concussive symptoms (PCS), across cognitive, somatic, emotional, and behavioral domains, and their recovery within the first 6 months after mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI), and their relation to participation.

Setting: Data were collected from patients visiting the emergency departments of 14 hospitals in the Netherlands.

Participants: Two hundred 8 to 17-year-old children with mTBI and their caregivers, and 186 adults with mTBI.

Design: Data were collected in 2 prospective cohort studies, with assessments at 2 weeks and 6 months post-injury. Data were analyzed using Multivariate Latent Class Growth Analysis to detect latent PCS patterns (classes), multivariate logistic regressions to assess age and sex differences between classes, and Kruskal-Wallis tests to investigate class differences in participation.

Main measures: PCS were assessed with the Health and Behavior Inventory (children) and the Rivermead Post-Concussion Symptoms Questionnaire (adults). Participation (being involved in daily life situations) was assessed with the Child and Adolescent Scale of Participation (children) and the Utrecht Scale for Evaluation and Rehabilitation-Participation (adults).

Results: Three distinct classes with unique PCS recovery trajectories were found across samples (children/caregiver, adults). In child-reported PCS, sex differences were found, driven by higher levels of somatic and emotional PCS in females. No sex differences were found in caregiver reports or in adult reports. Age differences were found in the caregiver report for the child sample, with higher ages found in the class showing decreasing somatic symptoms over time, and in the adult sample, where younger individuals were more often in the class with recovered PCS. Classes differed in their levels of participation in all samples.

Discussion: Findings highlight the heterogeneity of PCS across the lifespan as well as the variation of discrepancies in sex- and age-related findings. Taking age and sex differences into account increases our understanding of recovery patterns after mTBI and allow identification of at-risk individuals and better-tailored interventions.

Keywords: daily functioning; multivariate latent class growth analysis; participation; post-concussion symptoms; recovery.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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