Integrated strategies for enhancing agrifood productivity, lowering greenhouse gas emissions, and improving soil health

Abstract

Global agrifood systems face three interconnected challenges: ensuring food security, promoting environmental sustainability, and restoring soil health in the face of climate change. Conventional practices have prioritized productivity over ecological resilience, leading to soil degradation, increased greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and inefficient resource utilization. Here, we introduce a "triple-goal" agrifood framework that enhances food production, soil health, and GHG mitigation simultaneously through integrated innovations. Using a second-order meta-analysis of 104 meta-analyses that cover 39,162 studies and 300,139 global field comparisons, we identified key interventions, including optimized fertigation, diversified cropping systems, organic amendments, and precision N management, that increased productivity by 14%-28% while reducing environmental impacts. Diversified systems boosted yields by 19.6% and reduced land use by 19%. Integrating legumes and cover crops lowered N₂O emissions by 18%-65%, while organic amendments increased soil organic carbon stocks by 7%-13%. Structural equation modeling identified nitrogen use efficiency and microbial activity as central to the food-soil-emissions nexus. However, tradeoffs remain; yield-focused strategies can elevate emissions if not tailored to local conditions. By integrating agronomic, biological, and technological interventions such as conservation tillage, biofertilization, and digital agriculture, this triple-goal framework supports a 15%-30% reduction in anthropogenic CO₂-equivalent emissions. These findings underscore the need for policy reform and multi-stakeholder collaboration to scale up the adaptation of integrated strategies in alignment with the UN's Sustainable Development Goals and the "One Health" initiative. The triple-goal framework provides a transformative pathway to climate-smart, equitable, and resilient agrifood systems that strike a balance between productivity and planetary health.

Keywords: N2O emissions; agroecosystem resilience; alternative cropping systems; biofertilizers; biological nitrogen fixation; carbon footprint; soil-plant-microbiome interactions.

Graphical abstract

Figure 1

Integration of the three pillars—more food, healthier soils, and fewer emissions—within the triple-goal agrifood framework Each pillar is supported by key drivers. (A) More food through innovative and sustainable practices such as alley cropping, intercropping, genotype diversification, deficit irrigation, cover cropping, legume-based rotations, smart farming, precision agriculture, and vertical farming. (B) Healthier soils through strategies including increased carbon inputs, stable carbon pool formation, soil amendments, reduced or no-till practices, enhanced carbon and nitrogen cycling, improved soil aggregation, stimulation of root exudation, and promotion of endophyte activity. (C) Fewer emissions through enhanced carbon sequestration, reduced or no-till practices, optimized fertilization, improved residue N management, 4R fertilization strategies, erosion control, and management practices to reduce N₂O emissions.

Figure 2

The triple-goal framework integrates established and emerging farming practices to maximize agrifood productivity and stability (A) Results from the SOMA indicate that integrated farming approaches significantly increase crop yields compared to conventional practices. The main contributors to yield gains are optimized irrigation (28.3% increase, n = 60 first-order meta-analyses), diversified cropping systems (19.6%, n = 47), organic amendments (19.4%, n = 65), and improved soil management (18.8%, n = 84). (B) Each of these key drivers comprises a range of agronomic practices, leading to varying effects on crop yields. While multi-crop rotation, reduced or no tilling, crop seeding practices, and straw management also improved yields, they generally had smaller effects.

Figure 3

A healthy soil system involves complex metabolic pathways, nutrient transfer and cycling, and dynamic enzymatic and microbial activities Continuous inputs of plant litter and organic fertilizers contribute to maintaining stable soil organic matter (SOM) and improving soil structure through enhanced aggregation, which physically protects carbon pools from degradation and promotes microbial growth and activity. The coordination of (de)nitrification metabolic activities and processes involving in soil respiration and mineralization, driven by enzyme activities and root exudates, plays a key role in nutrient cycling. Optimized soil and crop management strategies can enhance soil health under favorable soil and climatic conditions.

Figure 4

Key driving factors impacting soil health (A) The SOMA revealed that soil infiltration is the most critical driver impacting soil health, as indicated by the Cornel Soil Health Index. Soil infiltration is closely related to tillage, crop rotation, and other soil management practices. (B) Various anthropogenic activities impact soil health by altering soil physiochemical and biological properties, including SOC (SOC), aggregate stability, soil porosity, enzymatic activity, microbial biomass carbon (MBC), microbial biomass nitrogen (MBN), and microbial diversity. Each of these seven soil properties is influenced by different soil- and crop-related practices.

Figure 5

Structural equation modeling demonstrates that many soil properties exhibit significant interactions Notably, there are highly significant, positive relationships between enzyme activity and soil organic carbon (SOC), MBC and MBN, MBC and microbial richness, MBN and SOC, MBN and porosity, MBN and infiltration, and MBN and enzymatic activities. Less important factors to the triple-goal framework were excluded based on their correlation coefficients (indicated by the numbers beside the corresponding lines).

Figure 6

Key drivers regulating N₂O emissions in agrifood production systems The triple-goal agrifood production system adopts a multidisciplinary approach to simultaneously boost food production, reduce GHG emissions, and improve soil health. This approach system mitigates nitrogen-induced emissions through practices such as (A) biochar application, improved soil management, straw retention, land-use optimization, and reduced tillage during cropping. However, many current anthropogenic activities aimed primarily at increasing crop yields—such as (B) intensive tillage, soil mulching, and climate change-related warming—can exacerbate nitrogen losses.

Figure 7

The relationship between food production, soil health, and GHG emissions The three components—food production, soil health, and GHG emissions—are strongly interconnected, with correlation coefficients greater than 0.609. Total soil nitrogen (TN) is the most influential factor in achieving high food production, followed by nitrogen use efficiency (NUE); both are positively associated with food production and emissions. Key soil health indicators include infiltration (Infil), MBC, MBN, and porosity (Poro). Soil enzyme activity (EnzAct), aggregate stability (Aggr), and SOC also contribute positively, though to a lesser extent. Some factors with minimal relevance to the triple-goal framework were excluded. Correlation coefficients are shown alongside the connecting lines.