Biomarkers for Lewy body diseases and other alpha-synucleinopathies in biofluids: current evidence and future directions

Abstract

Synucleinopathies, including Parkinson’s disease (PD), dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB), and multiple system atrophy (MSA), are a group of proteinopathies characterized by neuronal and glial aggregated alpha-synuclein (α-syn) inclusions. Pathologically, these disorders are typically classified into two categories based on the distribution of α-syn: Lewy body diseases (LBDs), such as PD and DLB, which are characterized by α-syn aggregates in neuronal perikarya and neurites in the form of Lewy bodies (LBs) and Lewy neurites (LNs), and MSA, which shows α-syn aggregates in oligodendrocytes as glial cytoplasmic inclusions (GCIs). The clinical distinction between these disorders is challenging, especially in the early stages, due to the overlap of symptoms. This highlights the urgent need for reliable biomarkers to enable more accurate diagnosis and to guide the development of targeted therapeutic strategies. Current research focuses on α-syn which is recognized as a key protein in the pathology of PD, although its potential as a biomarker remains debated due to inconsistent findings. This review provides an overview of recent advancements in biomarkers research for synucleinopathies, focusing on α-syn, neurofilament light chain (NfL), tau, synapsin III (SynIII), and extracellular vesicles (EVs). These biomarkers have been identified in various biofluids and non-invasive sources, including cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), blood, olfactory mucosa (OM), and urine, suggesting promising avenues for the development of future diagnostic tools.

Keywords: Alpha-synuclein; Blood; Olfactory mucosa; Parkinson’s disease; Synucleinopathies; Urine.

Fig. 1

Schematic representation of Parkinsonian disorders. Synucleinopathies include PD and DLB, where α-syn fibrils accumulate in neurons of the substantia nigra forming LBs, and MSA, characterized by α-syn aggregates in oligodendrocytes as GCIs. Tauopathies include PSP and CBD, which are characterized by tau fibril deposition in distal astrocytes. LBDs: Lewy body diseases; MSA: multiple system atrophy; PD: Parkinson’s disease; DLB: dementia with Lewy body; LBs: Lewy bodies; GCIs: glial cytoplasmic inclusions; PSP: Progressive supranuclear palsy; CBD: corticobasal degeneration

Fig. 2

Biomarkers across biofluids. (a) Overview of biomarkers currently available or under investigation for synucleinopathies, including various forms of α-syn, NfL, different tau protein isoforms, SynIII, and EVs. (b) Potential biological sources for biomarkers detection, including CSF, OM, and urine, indicating where each biomarker has been identified to date. α-syn: α-synuclein; NfL: neurofilament light chain, p-tau: phosphorylated tau; SynIII: synapsin III; EVs: extracellular vesicles; CSF: cerebrospinal fluid; OM: olfactory mucosa