ADHD in Adulthood: Clinical Presentation, Comorbidities, and Treatment Perspectives

Abstract

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults has become an increasingly recognized clinical entity, with growing attention in research and healthcare settings. ADHD can significantly affect multiple domains of adult functioning, including education, employment, interpersonal relationships, and both mental and physical health. However, despite the expanding body of literature, gaps in understanding persist. This narrative review synthesizes current evidence on adult ADHD. The literature was systematically searched in databases such as PubMed, Scopus, and PsycINFO using predefined keywords related to ADHD in adults. Inclusion criteria focused on peer-reviewed articles published between 2010 and 2025, addressing epidemiology, etiology, diagnosis, treatment, and functioning. Exclusion criteria included studies with pediatric populations only or lacking methodological rigor. ADHD in adults is prevalent worldwide, with considerable heterogeneity across studies. Its etiology involves complex interactions between genetic, neurobiological, and environmental factors. Clinical presentation in adulthood differs from childhood, with symptoms such as inattention, emotional dysregulation, and executive dysfunction predominating. Diagnostic challenges include retrospective assessment of childhood symptoms and comorbidity with mood and anxiety disorders. Pharmacotherapy and cognitive-behavioral interventions show efficacy, particularly when combined in integrated care models. ADHD negatively affects quality of life and occupational and social functioning and increases the risk of comorbid disorders, including psychoactive substance use. Adult ADHD is a multifaceted condition requiring a comprehensive, multidisciplinary approach to diagnosis and management. Future research should aim to refine diagnostic tools, explore neurobiological markers, and tailor interventions to individual profiles. Expanding knowledge on adult ADHD will improve identification, treatment outcomes, and overall quality of life for affected individuals.

Keywords: adult ADHD; cognitive–behavioral therapy; comorbidity; diagnosis; epidemiology; executive dysfunction; neurobiology; pharmacotherapy; quality of life; treatment.

Figure 1

Major environmental risk factors and modulators in ADHD.