Overview of Donkey Welfare and Husbandry Practices in Asia

Abstract

Donkeys (Equus asinus) play a critical role in agricultural, transport, and livelihood systems across Asia, yet they remain among the most neglected domestic species in terms of welfare, management, and research attention. This review synthesizes recent literature on donkey welfare, health, breeding, and conservation across Asia, highlighting regional disparities and emerging challenges. A systematic review of published studies identified welfare determinants including nutrition, workload, shelter, and veterinary access. Welfare conditions are found to be poorest in South Asia, particularly in Pakistan, India, and Afghanistan, where chronic undernutrition, inadequate housing, excessive workloads, and limited veterinary support prevail. Preventive healthcare, such as vaccination and deworming, remains largely absent, reflecting low owner awareness and weak veterinary infrastructure. In contrast, China demonstrates substantial progress through semi-intensive farming systems, structured welfare management, and research-based breeding programs that integrate welfare with productivity enhancement. Recent advancements in molecular genetics have further expanded the scope of donkey conservation and improvement. Studies on key genes, including PRKG2, NR6A1, LTBP2, HOXC8, and DCAF7, have elucidated their roles in vertebral number, skeletal development, and body conformation in Dezhou donkeys, offering new opportunities for genomic-level conservation and marker-assisted selection. Nonetheless, significant health challenges, such as parasitic, bacterial, and viral infections (Theileria equi, Giardia duodenalis, and Equid herpesviruses), continue to threaten productivity and welfare. Reproductive management across most Asian countries remains traditional and uncoordinated, whereas China leads in artificial insemination, genetic resource preservation, and policy-supported breeding initiatives. Ethical concerns surrounding overexploitation and the commercial use of donkeys, particularly in the ejiao (donkey-hide gelatin) industry, are also gaining attention. Overall, this review underscores the urgent need for a "One Welfare" approach, linking Animal Welfare, human livelihoods, and sustainable industry development. Strengthening veterinary infrastructure, promoting owner education, and integrating genomic tools into breeding programs are essential steps toward improving the welfare, productivity, and long-term conservation of donkeys across Asia.

Keywords: Asia; conservation; donkey; exploitation; management; veterinary care; welfare.

Figure 6

The overloading and working conditions of donkeys. (A) A donkey carrying heavy brick loads in a brick kiln industry [14], (B) A donkey transporting bulky green fodder loads from fields to households [135], (C) a donkey transporting logs in rural terrain [19], and (D) multiple donkeys carrying excessive brick loads in kiln environments [136]. All examples demonstrate the physical strain and welfare challenges caused by excessive workloads commonly observed among working donkeys across South Asia.

Figure 8

Radiography bed design and vertebral variation in Dezhou donkeys. (A–D) The left panels show the physical and schematic models of the radiography bed, including front and side views that highlight the main structural components used for accurate positioning and radiographic imaging of donkeys. (A) Front view of the physical bed; (B) side view of the physical bed; (C) model front view; (D) model side view. (A–E) The right panels illustrate morphological variation in thoracic and lumbar vertebrae of Dezhou donkeys, demonstrating differences in vertebral number and structure that indicate genetic diversity within the breed. (Adapted from Liu et al. [144], Wang et al. [153], and Khan et al. [148]).

Figure 1

A flowchart of the literature search and article selection.

Figure 2

Shelter and feeding management of donkeys in South and East Asia. According to Kamran et al. [26], (A,B), Traditional donkey management practices in northern Pakistan during winter conditions show limited shelter, water, and feed availability [26]. While (C,D) Modernized semi-intensive management systems in Dong’e China, where donkeys have access to open paddocks and well-developed shelters, allowing Animals to move freely, rest, and feed comfortably under supervised care. (C,D) Photograph taken by Changfa Wang.

Figure 3

Standard donkey stable constructed in Yulin city, Shaanxi Province, China, illustrating a modern semi-intensive housing system with open paddocks and well-ventilated stables. This facility represents China’s move toward standardized, welfare-oriented donkey husbandry designed to improve comfort, movement, and feeding management. Photograph taken by Changfa Wang.

Figure 4

The images illustrate various forms of injuries and mutilations commonly observed in working donkeys across South Asia. Panel (A) shows rope-induced wounds on the lower limbs caused by the use of hobbles. Panel (B) depicts an ear-splitting mutilation. Panel (C) presents multiple branding injuries located on the shoulder and upper limb region. Panel (D) displays nasal mutilation involving cuts through both nares, reflecting welfare challenges faced by working equids in the region [86].

Figure 5

Reproductive management and breeding evaluation of Dezhou donkeys in China, showing (A) blood sample collection for genetic and reproductive assessment and (B) Semen collection and processing procedures, including preparation of the artificial vagina, stimulation of the male donkey, and collection of ejaculate for evaluation and artificial insemination. These steps represent standardized reproductive management practices aimed at improving fertility, genetic selection, and sustainable breeding efficiency in the Dezhou donkey population. Photograph taken by Changfa Wang.

Figure 7

Cover page of the Chinese national industry standard Protocol of Animal welfare for donkeys during breeding, transport and slaughter (SN/T 5485-2022), issued by the Standardization Administration of the People’s Republic of China in 2022. The document establishes formal welfare requirements for donkey breeding, transport, and slaughter management, reflecting China’s increasing institutional emphasis on equine welfare [142].