Biophysics of organoids

Abstract

Organoids, 3D in vitro structures derived from embryonic or adult stem cells, offer powerful models for studying tissue patterning, development, morphogenesis, organ physiology, and disease. These systems replicate biological processes, such as cell differentiation, symmetry breaking, and tissue organization, while revealing species-specific developmental variations. Biophysical factors, such as extracellular matrix composition, cell motility, tissue flows, and stiffness, interact with biochemical signals to drive organoid formation, revealing complex multiscale phenomenon during growth, patterning, and homeostasis. Physics-based approaches provide a framework to understand these processes from first principles. In recent years, a growing community of researchers has been exploring what can be termed the "biophysics of organoids." This review covers a broad range of approaches-mechanical, kinetic, information-based, statistical, and artificial intelligence (AI)-driven-to study organoid development, offering insights into organogenesis, disease modeling, and regenerative medicine.

Keywords: AI; biophysics; boundary conditions; mechanochemical coupling; organoids.