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. 2026 Jan 2;16(1):3462.
doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-33486-6.

Sociospatial analysis of indoor bioaerosol variation across diverse residential zones in Jodhpur

Ramesh Kumar Huda #  1 , Rajnish Gupta #  2 , Pankaj Kumar  2 , Arun Kumar Sharma  3 , G S Toteja  4 , Bontha V Babu  2
Affiliations

Sociospatial analysis of indoor bioaerosol variation across diverse residential zones in Jodhpur

Ramesh Kumar Huda et al. Sci Rep. .

Abstract

A prospective longitudinal study was conducted to characterize and quantify the distribution of bacterial and fungal bioaerosols across varied residential zones in Jodhpur, India, a semi-arid city prone to dust storms and poor ambient air quality. Twelve households were selected from six different land-use categories (slum, low-, middle-, and high-income, commercial, and industrial). Bioaerosol samples were collected from five indoor and outdoor location during four seasons (July, November, February, and May) using passive air sampling. Bacterial counts peaked during the monsoon (July), with slum and industrial households showing the highest concentrations, particularly in kitchens and bathrooms. Fungal counts were most prominent in low-income and commercial areas. Aspergillus and Penicillium were the most frequently isolated fungal genera. Although statistically significant differences in bacterial and fungal counts were observed across certain sites and seasons, these variations did not follow a consistent trend across all households. Morphological identification revealed medically significant genera such as Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, and Proteus, indicating potential health risks. This is one of the first studies to assess residential indoor bioaerosols in a semi-arid Indian city. The findings reveal spatial and seasonal variation in microbial exposure, emphasizing the need for routine indoor air quality monitoring and targeted public health interventions, especially in overcrowded or poorly ventilated homes.

Keywords: Bacterial sampling; Bioaerosols; Fungal sampling; Indoor air quality; Jodhpur; Residential areas.

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Conflict of interest statement

Declarations. Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests. Institutional review board statement: The Institutional Ethics Committee (IEC) of the National Institute for Implementation Research on Non-Communicable Diseases (#IEC-NIIRNCD/2022/FR/006) approved the study protocol. All methods were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations. Informed consent: Written Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1
Distribution of Households for Indoor Bioaerosol Monitoring in Jodhpur. (Source: KoboToolBox, Version 2.021.12b, available at: https://kf.kobotoolbox.org/).
Fig. 2
Fig. 2
Monthly bacterial counts trends at different household locations in Jodhpur city.
Fig. 3
Fig. 3
Monthly Fungal counts trends at different household locations in Jodhpur city.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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