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. 2026 Jan 23;16(3):154.
doi: 10.3390/nano16030154.

Simulation and Optimization of Ballistic-Transport-Induced Avalanche Effects in Two-Dimensional Materials

Haipeng Wang  1 , Wei Zhang  1 , Han Wu  1 , Tong Li  1 , Beitong Cheng  1 , Jieping Luo  1 , Ruomei Jiang  1 , Mengke Cai  1 , Shuai Huang  1 , Haizhi Song  1   2   3   4
Affiliations

Simulation and Optimization of Ballistic-Transport-Induced Avalanche Effects in Two-Dimensional Materials

Haipeng Wang et al. Nanomaterials (Basel). .

Abstract

This study, for the first time, investigates and simulates ballistic-transport-induced avalanche behavior in two-dimensional materials. Using a technology computer-aided design simulation platform, a device model for ballistic avalanche transport is systematically established. By accurately calibrating the material parameters of two-dimensional materials and selecting appropriate physical models, the key features of the ballistic avalanche effect are successfully reproduced, including low threshold voltage and high gain. The simulation results show good agreement with experimental data. Furthermore, mechanism-based analysis is performed to clarify the influence of critical design parameters on the avalanche threshold and multiplication gain. Finally, based on the same physical models and mechanistic understanding, the operational paradigm and performance of ballistic-transport avalanche photodetectors based on two-dimensional materials are predicted. This work provides a reliable theoretical foundation and a robust simulation framework for the optimized design of high-performance and low-power avalanche photon devices.

Keywords: avalanche effect; ballistic transport; photodetectors; two-dimensional materials.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
(a) Schematic illustration of avalanche breakdown in conventional bulk materials and (b) schematic illustration of ballistic-transport-induced avalanche processes. Planes A and B correspond to the top surface and the bottom surface of the material, respectively.
Figure 2
Figure 2
(a) Structural representation of the BP-InSe APD (non-scaled), with the upper right inset depicting the fabricated device via experimental methods [41]; (b) BP-InSe APD simulated device structure: local structure of the device and local amplification structure.
Figure 3
Figure 3
BP–InSe avalanche photodetector: (a) comparison between simulated and experimentally measured current-voltage (I-V) characteristics, and (b) avalanche breakdown exhibiting a positive temperature coefficient, which confirms the ballistic-transport-induced avalanche effect [41].
Figure 4
Figure 4
Change in normalized noise power spectral density with frequency under different bias voltages for the 2D material avalanche photodiode. And the device performance in the upper right corner is from experimental devices fabricated in the previous literature [41].
Figure 5
Figure 5
Ballistic avalanche I-V characteristics under different gate voltages plotted on (a) linear and (b) logarithmic scales.
Figure 6
Figure 6
Doping-Dependent Ballistic Avalanche Current-Voltage Characteristics plotted on (a) linear and (b) logarithmic scales.
Figure 7
Figure 7
(a) Structural representation of the BP–InSe vertically stacked APD (not to scale); (b) simulated device structure of the BP–InSe vertically stacked APD, including the local device structure and the local multiplication region. Current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of the BP–InSe vertically stacked APD plotted on (c) a linear scale and (d) a logarithmic scale.
Figure 8
Figure 8
BP–InSe vertically stacked structure: (a) carrier transport trajectory illustration and (b) forward turn-on voltage–current characteristics as a function of temperature.
Figure 9
Figure 9
Change in normalized noise power spectral density with frequency for the vertically stacked metal-2D-material-metal structure.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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