Strong evidence for universals in facial expressions: a reply to Russell's mistaken critique

Abstract

J. A. Russell (1994) misrepresents what universality means, misinterprets the evidence from past studies, and fails to consider or report findings that disagree with his position. New data are introduced that decisively answer the central question that Russell raises about the use of a forced-choice format in many of the past studies. This article also shows that his many other qualms about other aspects of the design of the studies of literate cultures have no merit. Russell's critique of the preliterate cultures is inaccurate; he does not fully disclose what those who studied preliterate subjects did or what they concluded that they had found. Taking account of all of Russell's qualms, my analysis shows that the evidence from both literate and preliterate cultures is overwhelming in support of universals in facial expressions.