Current perspectives on hematospermia: a review

Abstract

Hematospermia is a disconcerting symptom that produces extreme anxiety in sexually active male patients. To understand the pathophysiology of hematospermia, the anatomy of the ejaculatory system and neurophysiology of emission and ejaculation is essential. Emission and ejaculation must be present for hematospermia to occur. Hematospermia may be the result of inflammation, infection, ductal obstruction or cysts, neoplasms, vascular abnormalities, and systemic or iatrogenic factors. Most patients promptly consult a urologist after an episode of hematospermia. History and physical examination are often unrevealing and the judicious use of imaging modalities, such as transrectal ultrasound, MRI, and rigid or flexible endoscopy may be diagnostic. Unless the specific etiology is defined, most cases are managed expectantly. We review the etiology of hematospermia and an algorithm is provided for the diagnosis and management.