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Meta-Analysis
. 2024 Dec 20;12(12):CD009508.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD009508.pub2.

Comparisons of approaches to pelvic floor muscle training for urinary incontinence in women

E Jean C Hay-Smith  1 , Małgorzata Starzec-Proserpio  2   3 , Brittany Moller  4   5 , Daniela Aldabe  6 , Licia Cacciari  7 , Ana Carolina R Pitangui  8 , Giovana Vesentini  7 , Stephanie J Woodley  4 , Chantale Dumoulin  7 , Helena C Frawley  9 , Cristine H Jorge  10 , Mélanie Morin  3 , Sheila A Wallace  11 , Mark Weatherall  1
Affiliations
Meta-Analysis

Comparisons of approaches to pelvic floor muscle training for urinary incontinence in women

E Jean C Hay-Smith et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: Pelvic floor muscle training (PFMT) is a recommended treatment for female stress, urgency, and mixed urinary incontinence. Training varies in exercise type (pelvic floor muscles contracting with and without other muscles), dose, and delivery (e.g. amount and type of supervision).

Objectives: To assess the effects of alternative approaches (exercise type, dose, and delivery) to pelvic floor muscle training (PFMT) in the management of urinary incontinence (stress, urgency, and mixed) in women.

Search methods: We searched the Cochrane Incontinence Specialised Register (searched 27 September 2023; which contains CENTRAL, MEDLINE, ClinicalTrials.gov, and World Health Organization ICTRP), handsearched journals and conference proceedings, and reviewed reference lists of relevant articles.

Selection criteria: Randomised, quasi-randomised, or cluster-randomised trials in female stress, urge, or mixed urinary incontinence where one trial arm included PFMT and another was an alternative approach to PFMT type, dose, or intervention delivery. We excluded studies with participants with neurological conditions or pregnant or recently postpartum.

Data collection and analysis: Two review authors independently assessed trials for eligibility and methodological quality using the Cochrane RoB 1 tool. We extracted and cross-checked data and resolved disagreements by discussion. Data processing was as described in the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions (Version 6). Synthesis was completed in intervention subgroups.

Main results: This is a review update. The analysis included 63 trials with 4920 women; the previous version included 21 trials with 1490 women. Samples sizes ranged from 11 to 362. Overall, study participants were mid-age (45 to 65 years) parous women with stress or stress-predominant mixed urinary incontinence (46 trials), who had no prior incontinence treatment or pelvic surgery, or appreciable pelvic floor dysfunction. Trials were conducted in countries around the world, mostly in middle- or high-income settings (53 trials). All trials had one or more arms using 'direct' PFMT, defined as repeated, isolated, voluntary pelvic floor muscle contractions. Trials were categorised as comparisons of exercise type (27 trials, 3 subgroups), dose (11 trials, 5 subgroups, 1 with no data), and delivery (25 trials, 5 subgroups). Incontinence quality of life data are reported here as the primary outcome. Adverse event data were summarised narratively. Comparison 1: exercise type Co-ordinated training (body movements with concurrent pelvic floor muscle contraction) versus direct PFMT Co-ordinated training may slightly improve quality of life (standardised mean difference (SMD) -0.22, 95% confidence interval (CI) -0.44 to -0.01; I2 = 81%; 8 trials, 356 women; low-certainty evidence). Indirect training (exercises that are not contractions of the pelvic floor muscles) versus direct PFMT Direct PFMT may moderately improve quality of life (SMD 0.70, 95% CI 0.38 to 1.02; I2 = 78%; 4 trials, 170 women; low-certainty evidence). Indirect training combined with direct PFMT versus direct PFMT Combining indirect training with direct PFMT may make little to no difference in quality of life (SMD -0.08, 95% CI -0.26 to 0.10; I2 = 33; 7 trials, 482 women; low-certainty evidence). Comparison 2: exercise dose PFMT with resistance device versus PFMT without resistance device PFMT without a resistance device may slightly improve incontinence quality of life, but the evidence is very uncertain (SMD 0.22, 95% CI -0.04 to 0.48; I2 = 32%; 3 trials, 227 women; very low-certainty evidence). Maximal pelvic floor muscle contractions versus submaximal pelvic floor muscle contractions No data reported. PFMT more days per week versus PFMT fewer days per week PFMT more days per week may greatly improve incontinence quality of life (SMD -1.60, 95% CI -2.15 to -1.05; 1 trial, 68 women; low-certainty evidence). PFMT in upright body positions versus PFMT when lying down No data reported. Comparison 3: exercise intervention delivery PFMT supervised in clinic versus PFMT at home Clinic supervision may slightly improve incontinence quality of life, but the evidence is very uncertain (SMD -0.30, 95% CI -0.65 to 0.05; I2 = 89%; 3 trials, 137 women; very low-certainty evidence). More clinician contact for PFMT supervision versus less clinician contact No usable data reported. Individual supervision of PFMT versus group supervision Individually supervised PFMT probably results in little to no difference in quality of life (SMD -0.18, 95% CI -0.35 to -0.01; I2 = 0%; 5 trials, 544 women; moderate-certainty evidence). PFMT supervised in clinic versus supervision using e-health (mobile app communication with clinicians) Clinic supervision may make little to no difference in incontinence quality of life, but the evidence is very uncertain (SMD -0.11, 95% CI -0.41 to 0.19; 1 trial, 173 women; very low-certainty evidence). PFMT instruction delivered via e-health versus written instruction E-health delivery may slightly improve quality of life (SMD -0.21, 95% CI -0.43 to 0.01; I2 = 25%; 3 studies, 318 women; low-certainty evidence). Adverse events Nine trials collected adverse event data; 66/1083 (6%) women had an adverse event. Almost all events were associated with use of an intravaginal or intrarectal training device. The adverse events were vaginal discharge, spotting, or discomfort. Limitations in the evidence Four main factors influenced our certainty in the evidence: 44 trials were at unclear or high risk of selection bias; data were sparse in some subgroups with few trials, trials that did not measure outcomes of interest, or did not report usable data; results were inconsistent; and many trials were small (imprecise).

Authors' conclusions: Although there is low- to moderate-certainty evidence that some approaches to PFMT are better than others, for some there was little or no difference. The 7th International Consultation on Incontinence recommends PFMT as first-line therapy for women with urinary incontinence. Direct PFMT (sets of repeated, isolated, voluntary pelvic floor muscle contractions) may result in a small improvement in incontinence quality of life compared to indirect training. In terms of improved quality of life, PFMT can be supervised individually or in a group because it probably makes little to no difference in achieving this outcome. Many comparisons had low- or very low-certainty evidence, often because there was only one trial or several small trials with methodological limitations. More, better designed and reported trials, directly comparing PFMT approaches are needed, especially trials investigating exercise dose.

Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03862326 NCT02039830 NCT03500185 NCT02664714 NCT04484753 NCT03058042 NCT04340323 NCT03203798 NCT02510131 NCT03401983 NCT04351750 NCT00197314 NCT02318251 NCT01948713 NCT02924740 NCT01245153 NCT01032265 NCT04991675 CTRI/2021/09/036247 NCT03166150 NCT03514147 NCT04390204 NCT04587895 NCT05154760 NCT05193435 NCT05253898 NCT05293886 NCT05390008 NCT05446792 NCT05463172 NCT03296462 NCT03727269 NCT03911362 NCT04237753 NCT04994041 NCT05443074 NCT05610761 NCT05618886 NCT05635175 NCT05666427 NCT05751213 NCT05916820 NCT05970796.

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Conflict of interest statement

Chantale Dumoulin, Licia Cacciari, Mélanie Morin (Dumoulin 2020) and Cristine Homsi Jorge (previously Ferreira) (Figueiredo 2020) were authors of trials included in the review. They had no direct involvement in study eligibility decisions, data extraction, risk of bias assessment, or GRADE assessment of any trial for which they were an author.

Chantale Dumoulin (current), Jean Hay‐Smith (past) and Sheila Wallace (past) are or were Cochrane Editors. None had any involvement in the editorial process for this review.

The following review authors disclose no other relevant interests: Daniela Aldabe, Licia Cacciari, Helena Frawley, Brittany Moller, Mélanie Morin, Ana Carolina Pitangui, Giovana Vesentini, Sheila Wallace, Mark Weatherall, Stephanie Woodley.

The following review authors disclosed the following relevant interests: Jean Hay‐Smith (EBOS Group Limited (Stock)), Cristine Homsi Jorge (Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (Independent Contractor – Other)). Malgorzata Starzec‐Proserpio (Canadian Institutes of Health research (Grant/Contract)).

Update of

References

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Felicissimo 2010 {published data only (unpublished sought but not used)}
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Fitz 2015 {published data only (unpublished sought but not used)}
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    1. Konstantinidou E, Apostolidis A, Kondelidis N, Tsimtsiou Z, Hatzichristou D, Ioannides E. Short-term efficacy of high-supervisory-intensity group pelvic floor training versus unsupervised, home training in female stress urinary incontinence: a randomised pilot study. European Urology Supplements 2006;5(2):192.
Konstantinidou 2013 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Konstantinidou E, Kalaitzi M, Mytilekas KV, Ioannides E-I, Hatzichristou D, Apostolidis A. Does the type of physiotherapy affect the quality of life and clinical outcomes in female urinary incontinence? A comparative study of two physiotherapy schemes. European Urology Supplements 2013;12(1):e733.
    1. Konstantinidou E, Kalaitzi M, Mytilekas KV, Mikos T, Ioannides E, Hatzichristou D, et al. Is there a role for training of the transversus abdominis muscles in the physiotherapy schemes applied in the treatment of female urinary incontinence? (Abstract number 445). 43rd Annual Meeting of the International Continence Society (ICS), 2013 Aug 26-30; Barcelona (Spain).
    1. Konstantinidou E, Mikos T, Kalaitzi M, Oeconomou A, Mytilekas K, Papameletiou V, et al. Real-time ultrasonographic evaluation of the levator ani and transversus abdominis muscles: is there a role in female urinary incontinence? Neurourology and Urodynamics 2011;30(6):1111-2.
Kucukkaya 2021 {published data only}
    1. Kucukkaya B, Kahyaoglu Süt H. Effectiveness of pelvic floor muscle and abdominal training in women with stress urinary incontinence. Psychology, Health & Medicine 2021;26(6):779-86. [DOI: 10.1080/13548506.2020.1842470] - DOI
    1. NCT03401983. Effectiveness of pelvic floor muscle and abdominal training in women with stress urinary incontinence [Effectiveness of pelvic floor muscle and abdominal training in women with stress urinary incontinence: a randomized controlled study]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT03401983 (first posted 17 January 2018).
Lausen 2018 {published data only}ISRCTN74075972
    1. ISRCTN74075972. Modified Pilates as an adjunct treatment for urinary incontinence [Modified Pilates as an adjunct to standard physiotherapy care for urinary incontinence]. isrctn.com/ISRCTN74075972 (first registered 12 December 2012).
    1. Lausen A, Marsland L, Head S, Jackson J, Lausen B. Modified Pilates as an adjunct to standard physiotherapy care for urinary incontinence: a mixed methods pilot for a randomised controlled trial. BMC Women's Health 2018;18(1):16. [DOI: 10.1186/s12905-017-0503-y] - DOI
    1. Lausen A, Marsland L, Head S, Jackson J, Lausen B. Modified Pilates as an adjunct to standard physiotherapy care for urinary incontinence: a mixed-methods pilot for a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Pelvic, Obstetric and Gynaecological Physiotherapy 2018;123:20-33.
Li 2023 {published data only}
    1. Li YT, Tsai YJ, Wang LY, Ou YC, Kao YL, Lin KY. The feasibility of a multimodal exercise program for sedentary postmenopausal women with urinary incontinence: a pilot randomized controlled trial. Maturitas 2023;167:90-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.maturitas.2022.10.004] - DOI
    1. NCT04351750. Dose-response of physical exercise on pelvic floor muscle function in postmenopausal women with urinary incontinence [Dose-response of physical exercise on pelvic floor muscle function in postmenopausal women with urinary incontinence: a randomized controlled trial]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT04351750 (first posted 17 April 2017).
Liebergall‐Wischnitzer 2005 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Liebergall-Wischnitzer M, Hochner-Celnikier D, Lavy Y, Manor O, Arbel R, Paltiel O. Paula method of circular muscle exercises for urinary stress incontinence – a clinical trial. International Urogynecology Journal and Pelvic Floor Dysfunction 2005;16(5):345-51. [DOI: 10.1007/s00192-004-1261-6] - DOI
Liebergall‐Wischnitzer 2009 {published data only}
    1. Liebergall M, Hochner-Celnikier D, Manor 0, Lavy Y, Paltiel O. Comparison of the effectiveness of circular muscle exercise with pelvic floor training for urinary stress incontinence in women; a randomized controlled trial. International Urogynecology Journal 2006;17(Suppl 2):S206-7. 24299269
    1. Liebergall-Wischnitzer M, Hochner-Celnikier D, Lavy Y, Manor O, Shveiky D, Paltiel O. Randomized trial of circular muscle versus pelvic floor training for stress urinary incontinence in women. Journal of Women's Health 2009;18(3):377-85. [DOI: 10.1089/jwh.2008.0950] - DOI
    1. Liebergall-Wischnitzer M, Paltiel O, Hochner Celnikier D, Lavy Y, Manor O, Woloski Wruble AC. Sexual function and quality of life of women with stress urinary incontinence: a randomized controlled trial comparing the Paula method (circular muscle exercises) to pelvic floor muscle training (PFMT) exercises. Journal of Sexual Medicine 2012;9(6):1613-23. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1743-6109.2012.02721.x] - DOI
    1. Liebergall-Wischnitzer M, Paltiel O, Hochner-Celnikier D, Lavy Y, Manor O, Woloski Wruble AC. Sexual function and quality of life for women with mild-to-moderate stress urinary incontinence. Journal of Midwifery & Women's Health 2011;56(5):461-7. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1542-2011.2011.00076.x] - DOI
    1. Liebergall-Wischnitzer M, Paltiel O, Lavy Y, Shveiky D, Manor O, Hochner-Celnikier D. Long-term efficacy of Paula method as compared with pelvic floor muscle training for stress urinary incontinence in women: a 6-month follow-up. Journal of Wound, Ostomy, & Continence Nursing 2013;40(1):90-6. [DOI: 10.1097/WON.0b013e318275012f] - DOI
Luginbuehl 2022 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Koenig I, Eichelberger P, Luginbuehl H, Kuhn A, Lehmann C, Taeymans J, et al. Activation patterns of pelvic floor muscles in women with incontinence while running: a randomized controlled trial. International Urogynecology Journal 2021;32(2):335-43. [DOI: 10.1007/s00192-020-04334-0] - DOI
    1. Koenig I, Eichelberger P, Luginbuehl H, Kuhn A, Lehmann C, Taeymans J, et al. Activation patterns of pelvic floor muscles in women with incontinence while running: a randomized controlled trial. Neurourology and Urodynamics 2019;38(S3):S339-40. [DOI: 10.1002/nau.24118] - DOI
    1. Koenig I, Moetteli C, Luginbuehl H, Radlinger L, Kuhn A, Taeymans J. Health status, comorbidities and cost-of-illness in females with stress urinary incontinence living in the Canton of Bern. Zeitschrift Für Evidenz, Fortbildung und Qualität Im Gesundheitswesen [Journal for Evidence, Training and Quality in Healthcare] 2020;150-2:73-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.zefq.2020.02.002] - DOI
    1. Luginbuehl H, Lehmann C, Baeyens JP, Kuhn A, Radlinger L. Involuntary reflexive pelvic floor muscle training in addition to standard training versus standard training alone for women with stress urinary incontinence: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials 2015;16:524. [DOI: 10.1186/s13063-015-1051-0] - DOI
    1. Luginbuehl H, Lehmann C, Koenig I, Kuhn A, Buergin R, Radlinger L. Involuntary reflexive pelvic floor muscle training in addition to standard training versus standard training alone for women with stress urinary incontinence: a randomized controlled trial. International Urogynecology Journal 2022;33(3):531-40. [DOI: 10.1007/s00192-021-04701-5] - DOI
Manfio Marroni 2017 {published data only}RBR‐4ZVPWB
    1. Manfio Marroni N. Comparison Between the Mat Pilates Method and Perineal Exercises in the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence and On Pelvic Floor Muscle Function [Comparação Entre o Método Mat Pilates Com Os Exercícios Perineais no Tratamento da Incontinência Urinária de Esforço e Sobre a Função Muscular do Assoalho Pélvico] [Masters thesis]. Marília (Brazil): Faculdade de Medicina de Marília, 2017.
    1. RBR-4zvpwb. Comparison of physiotherapeutic treatments for urine leakage [Comparison of the Pilates mat method with perineal exercises in the treatment of stress urinary incontinence and on pelvic floor muscle function in women between the ages of 40 and 65]. ensaiosclinicos.gov.br/rg/RBR-4zvpwb (first registered 27 November 2017).
    1. Rodrigues Evangelista D, Manfio Marroni N, Cavalcante de Assis L, Hiroshi Tutia M, Karan Barbosa PM. Comparison between the Pilates method and perineal exercises in the treatment of stress urinary incontinence [Comparacao entre o metodo pilates com os exercicios perineais no tratamento da incontinencia urinaria de esforco]. Revista Inspirar Movimento & Saude [Inspire Movement & Health Magazine] 2018;Suppl:66-7.
Marques 2005 {published data only (unpublished sought but not used)}
    1. Marques KS, Freitas PA. The kinesiotherapy on treatment of urinary incontinences in a health-based center [A cinesioterapia como tratamento da incontinência urinária na unidade básica de saúde]. Fisioterapia em Movimento (Physiotherapy in Motion) 2005;18(4):63-7.
Marques 2020 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Marques S, Haddad J, Pâssaro A, Silveira S, Baracat E, Ferreira E. Effectiveness of the strengthening of pelvic floor muscles, adductors of hip, gluteus maximus and gluteus medius in the treatment of stress urinary incontinence: blind randomized clinical trial – partial results. 44th Annual Meeting of the International Continence Society (ICS); 2014 Oct 20-24; Rio de Janeiro (Brazil).
    1. Marques SA, Da Silveira SR, Pâssaro AC, Haddad JM, Baracat EC, Ferreira EA. Effect of pelvic floor and hip muscle strengthening in the treatment of stress urinary incontinence: a randomized clinical trial. Journal of Manipulative and Physiological Therapeutics 2020;43(3):247-56. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jmpt.2019.01.007] - DOI
    1. Marques SA, Silveira SB, Haddad JM, Pâssaro AC, Edmund BC, Ferreira EA. Effect of pelvic floor and hip muscle strengthening in the treatment of stress urinary incontinence: randomized blind clinical trial. International Urogynecology Journal and Pelvic Floor Dysfunction 2015;26(1 Suppl 1):S141-2.
    1. NCT01948713. Effect of pelvic floor and hip muscle strengthening in the treatment of stress urinary incontinence [Effect of pelvic floor and hip muscle strengthening in the treatment of stress urinary incontinence: randomized blind clinical trial]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT01948713 (first posted 24 September 2013).
Mushtaq 2019 {published data only}
    1. Mushtaq S, Ahmed A. Effectiveness of pelvic floor muscle training versus Pilates exercise program to treat stress urinary incontinence in females: a randomized control trial. Isra Medical Journal 2019;11(4, Part B):281-5.
Nagib 2021 {published data only}RBR‐35h4xg
    1. Nagib AB, Silva VR, Martinho NM, Marques A, Riccetto C, Botelho S. Can supervised pelvic floor muscle training through gametherapy relieve urinary incontinence symptoms in climacteric women? A feasibility study. Revista Brasileira de Ginecologia e Obstetricia 2021;43(7):535-44. [DOI: 10.1055/s-0041-1733979] - DOI
    1. RBR-35h4xg. Female pelvic floor muscle training in the urinary symptoms of urinary incontinence [Female pelvic floor muscle training in the urinary symptoms of stress urinary incontinence and mixed urinary incontinence]. ensaiosclinicos.gov.br/rg/RBR-35h4xg (first registered 30 April 2018).
Ng 2008 {published data only (unpublished sought but not used)}
    1. Lin TL, Chen YC, Hu SW, Chen GD. Nursing intervention to enforce the efficacy of home practice of pelvic floor muscle exercise in mixed incontinence. Joint Meeting of the International Continence Society (ICS) (34th Annual Meeting) and the International Urogynecological Association (IUGA); 2004 Aug 23-27; Paris (France) 2004.
    1. Ng SC, Lin TL, Chang SJ, Tai HL, Hu SW, Chen GD. Nursing intervention to enhance efficacy of home practice of pelvic floor muscle exercises in treating mixed urinary incontinence. International Urogynecology Journal 2008;19(5):637-42. [DOI: 10.1007/s00192-007-0492-8] - DOI
Nipa 2020 {published data only}TCTR2020320004
    1. Nipa SI, Sriboonreung T, Paungmali A, Phongnarisorn C. The effects of pelvic floor muscle exercise combined with core stability exercise on women with stress urinary incontinence following the treatment of nonspecific chronic low back pain. Advances in Urology 2022;2022:2051374. [DOI: 10.1155/2022/2051374] - DOI
    1. TCTR20200320004. Effects of pelvic floor muscle exercise combined with core stability exercise among women with stress urinary incontinence following treatment of non-specific chronic low back pain [Combined effects of pelvic floor muscle exercise combined and core stability exercise among women with stress urinary incontinence]. www.thaiclinicaltrials.org/show/TCTR20200320004 (first posted 20 March 2020).
Orhan 2019 {published data only (unpublished sought but not used)}
    1. NCT02924740. The effects of vaginal tampon training added to pelvic floor muscle training in stress urinary incontinence. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT02924740 (first posted 5 October 2016).
    1. Orhan C, Akbayrak T, Kaya S, Baran E, Üzelpasaci E, Nakip G, et al. The effects of vaginal tampon training added to pelvic floor muscle training in women with stress urinary incontinence: a randomized controlled trial. Neurourology and Urodynamics 2017;36(Suppl S3):S173-5.
    1. Orhan C, Akbayrak T, Özgül S, Baran E, Üzelpasaci E, Nakip G, et al. Effects of vaginal tampon training added to pelvic floor muscle training in women with stress urinary incontinence: randomized controlled trial. International Urogynecology Journal 2019;30(2):219-29. [DOI: 10.1007/s00192-018-3585-7] - DOI
Pereira 2011 {published data only}
    1. Pereira VS, Correia GN, Driusso P. Individual and group pelvic floor muscle training versus no treatment in female stress urinary incontinence: a randomized controlled pilot study. European Journal of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Biology 2011;159(2):465-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejogrb.2011.09.003] - DOI
Prudencio 2014 {published data only}
    1. Prudencio C, Barbosa A, Deróbio AL, Anézio A, Vesentini G, Almeida AP, et al. Comparison of three physiotherapy methods for treatment of stress urinary incontinence: impact in quality of life and muscle function. 44th Annual Meeting of the International Continence Society (ICS); 2014 Oct 20-24; Rio de Janeiro (Brazil).
Rodrigues 2020 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Rodrigues EP, Borges FA, José-Vaz LA, Fitz FF, Pereira-Baldon V, Resende AP. Pelvic floor muscle training is better than Pilates exercise program in female stress urinary incontinence treatment: randomized controlled trial. International Urogynecology Journal 2020;31(Suppl 1):S10.
Roongsirisangrat 2012 {published data only (unpublished sought but not used)}
    1. NCT01245153. Rectal balloon training in female urinary incontinence [Phase 2B study of rectal balloon training in female urinary incontinence]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT01245153 (first posted 22 November 2010).
    1. Roongsirisangrat S, Rangkla S, Manchana T, Tantisiriwat N. Rectal balloon training as an adjunctive method for pelvic floor muscle training in conservative management of stress urinary incontinence: a pilot study. Chotmaihet Thangphaet [Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand] 2012;95(9):1149-55.
    1. Tantisiriwat N, Roongsirisangrat S, Rangkla S, Manchana T. Rectal balloon training in female urinary incontinence. Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine 2012;44(Suppl 52):37.
Saleem 2022 {published data only}
    1. Saleem M, Hassan Z, Khurshid A, Khalid M, Latif W. Effects of modified Pilates on incontinence severity and quality of life in females with urinary incontinence. Pakistan Journal of Medical & Health Sciences 2022;16(8):107-9. [DOI: 10.53350/pjmhs22168107] - DOI
Savage 2005 {published data only}
    1. ISRCTN27633617. A pilot study to evaluate the effectiveness of dynamic lumbo-pelvic stability training as a treatment strategy for women with stress incontinence: a randomised controlled trial. www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN27633617 (first registered 30 September 2004).
    1. Savage AM. Is lumbopelvic stability training (using the Pilates model) an effective treatment strategy for women with stress urinary incontinence? A review of the literature and report of a pilot study. Journal of the Association of Chartered Physiotherapists in Women's Health 2005;97:33-48.
Sjöström 2013 {published data only}
    1. Björk AB, Sjöström M, Johansson EE, Samuelsson E, Umefjord G. Women's experiences of internet-based or postal treatment for stress urinary incontinence. Qualitative Health Research 2014;24(4):484-93. [DOI: 10.1177/1049732314524486] - DOI
    1. Lindh A, Sjöström M, Stenlund H, Samuelsson E. Non-face-to-face treatment of stress urinary incontinence: predictors of success after 1 year. International Urogynecology Journal 2016;27(12):1857-65. [DOI: 10.1007/s00192-016-3050-4] - DOI
    1. Lindh A, Sjöström M, Stenlund H, Samuelsson E. Non-face-to-face treatment of stress urinary incontinence: predictors of success after 1 year. Neurourology and Urodynamics 2015;34(S3):S443-4. [DOI: 10.1002/nau.22830] - DOI
    1. NCT01032265. Web-based management of female stress urinary incontinence [Web-based management of female stress urinary incontinence. Evaluation of a treatment programme with pelvic floor muscle training and elements of cognitive behavioural therapy]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT01032265 (first posted 15 December 2009).
    1. Nyström E, Sjöström M, Stenlund H, Samuelsson E. ICIQ symptom and quality of life instruments measure clinically relevant improvements in women with stress urinary incontinence. Neurourology and Urodynamics 2015;34(8):747-51. [DOI: 10.1002/nau.22657] - DOI
Sonmezer 2022 {published data only}
    1. Sonmezer E, Öztoprak E, Dokmeci F, Karakaya G. Investigation of the effectiveness of a pelvic floor muscle training mobile application in women with stress urinary incontinence: randomized controlled trial. Female Pelvic Medicine & Reconstructive Surgery 2022;28(6):S262-3. [DOI: 10.1097/SPV.0000000000001202] - DOI
    1. Sonmezer E, Öztoprak E, Dokmeci F, Karakaya G. Investigation of the effectiveness of a pelvic floor muscle training mobile application in women with stress urinary incontinence: randomized controlled trial. International Urogynecology Journal 2022;33:S490-1. [DOI: 10.1007/s00192-022-05295-2] - DOI
Sriboonreung 2011 {published data only}
    1. Sriboonreung T, Wongtra-ngan S, Eungpinichpong W, Laopaiboon M. Effectiveness of pelvic floor muscle training in incontinent women at Maharaj Nakorn Chiang Mai Hospital: a randomized controlled trial. Chotmaihet Thangphaet [Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand] 2011;94(1):1-7.
Suraj 2016 {published data only}CTRI/2012/12/003226
    1. CTRI/2012/12/003226. Prevalence and treatment for urinary incontinence using exercises in women of Udupi Taluk. www.ctri.nic.in/Clinicaltrials/pmaindet2.php?trialid=4744 (first registered 17 December 2012).
    1. Suraj S, Rao B, Nayak S, Kumar P, Kamath V, Kamath A. Effect of physiotherapy interventions (Tanzberger approach) in married women with urinary incontinence. Neurourology and Urodynamics 2016;35(S4):S88-9.
Tejero 2008 {published data only}
    1. Tejero M, Marco E, Boza R, Selva F, Piqueras M, Guillen A, et al. Stress urinary incontinence and pelvic floor muscle exercises: effectiveness of two different intensive training versus home instructions [Incontinencia urinaria de esfuerzo y ejercicios del suelo pélvico. Estudio comparativoentre la eficacia de un entrenamiento individualizado vs instrucciones básicas]. Trauma 2008;19(3):171-7.
Toprak 2022 {published data only}
    1. NCT04991675. Diaphragmatic breathing exercises on urinary incontinence [The role of diaphragmatic breathing exercises on urinary incontinence treatment: a pilot study]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT04991675 (first posted 5 August 2021).
    1. Toprak N, Sen S, Varhan B. The role of diaphragmatic breathing exercise on urinary incontinence treatment: a pilot study. Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies 2022;29:146-53. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jbmt.2021.10.002] - DOI
Wells 1999 {unpublished data only}
    1. Wells T, Mayer R, Brink C, Brown R. Pelvic muscle exercise: a controlled clinical trial (as supplied in 1999). Data on File.
Wilson 1987 {published data only}
    1. Wilson PD, Al Samarrai T, Deakin M, Kolbe E, Brown AD. An objective assessment of physiotherapy for female genuine stress incontinence. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 1987;94(6):575-82. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-0528.1987.tb03153.x] - DOI
    1. Wilson PD, Al Samarrai T, Deakin M, Kolbe E, Brown AD. The value of physiotherapy in female genuine stress incontinence. International Continence Society (ICS), 14th Annual Meeting; 1984 Sep 13-15; Innsbruck (Austria).
Wong 1997 {published data only}
    1. Wong KS, Fung BK, Fung LC, Ma S. Pelvic floor exercises in the treatment of stress urinary incontinence in Hong Kong Chinese women. International Continence Society (ICS), 27th Annual Meeting; 1997 Sep 23-26; Yokohama (Japan).
Zanetti 2007 {published data only (unpublished sought but not used)}
    1. Zanetti MR, Aquino Castro R, Rotta AL, Santos PD, Sartori M, Girão MJ. Impact of supervised physiotherapeutic pelvic floor exercises for treating female stress urinary incontinence. Sao Paulo Medical Journal 2007;125(5):265-9. [DOI: 10.1590/s1516-31802007000500003] - DOI

References to studies excluded from this review

Alihosseini 2016 {published data only}
    1. Alihosseini E, Najar S, Afshari P, Haghighizadeh MH. Comparison of the effect of SMS with face to face training on performance of Kegel exercise in middle-aged women [Persian]. Iranian Journal of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Infertility 2016;19(34):18-25. [DOI: 10.22038/ijogi.2016.8021] - DOI
Alves 2016 {published data only}
    1. Alves FK, Adami DB, Marques J, Pereira LC, Riccetto C, Botelho S. Insertion of a pelvic floor muscle training program for postmenopausal women in primary health care [Inserção de um programa de treinamento dos músculos do assoalho pélvico na AtençãoBásica à Saúde para mulheres na pós-menopausa]. Fisioterapia Brasil 2016;17(2):131-9. [DOI: 10.33233/fb.v17i2.199] - DOI
An 2017 {published data only}
    1. An SY, Kim SS, Han G. Effect of belly dancing on urinary incontinence-related muscles and vaginal pressure in middle-aged women. Journal of Physical Therapy Science 2017;29(3):384-6. [DOI: 10.1589/jpts.29.384] - DOI
Bezerra 2021 {published data only}
    1. Bezerra LO, Oliveira MC, Da Silva Filho EM, Vicente da Silva HK, Menezes de Oliveira GF, Da Silveira Goncalves AK, et al. Impact of pelvic floor muscle training isolated and associated with game therapy on mixed urinary incontinence: a randomized controlled trial. Games for Health Journal 2021;10(1):43-9. [DOI: 10.1089/g4h.2019.0207] - DOI
Carrión Pérez 2015 {published data only}
    1. Carrión Pérez F, Rodríguez Moreno MS, Carnerero Córdoba L, Romero Garrido MC, Quintana Tirado L, García Montes I. Telerehabilitation to treat stress urinary incontinence. Pilot study. Medicina Clinica 2015;144(10):445-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.medcli.2014.05.036] - DOI
Chao 2022 {published data only}
    1. Chao HT, Chang PC, Lin YK, Huang WC, Wu CC, Chang LI, et al. Longitudinal effects of a combined program of pelvic floor muscle training and yoga on genitourinary symptoms in Asian women of older age: a randomized experimental study. Geriatric Nursing 2022;46:27-38. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gerinurse.2022.04.018] - DOI
    1. NCT0427781. Effects of an intervention on improving midlife women's menopause-related symptoms. clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT04277871 (first posted 20 February 2020). [CTRI: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04277871 2020.]
De Gregorio 1993 {published data only}
    1. De Gregorio G, Krahmann H, Bernhard A. The efficacy of pelvic floor reeducation. Randomized study. Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics 1993;254(1-4):504-6.
de Jong 2006 {published data only}
    1. Jong JH, Kampen M, Biemans B. The effect of whole body vibration training on women with stress urinary incontinence. International Continence Society (ICS), 36th Annual Meeting; 2006 Nov 27-Dec 1; Christchurch (New Zealand).
Donahoe‐Fillmore 2012 {published data only}
    1. Donahoe-Fillmore B, Brahler C, Chorny W, Ingley A, Kennedy J, Osterfeld V. A comparison of two pelvic floor muscle training programs in females with stress incontinence: a pilot study. Journal of Women's Health Physical Therapy 2011;35(1):29.
    1. Donahoe-Fillmore B, Chorny W, Brahler CJ, Ingley A, Kennedy J, Osterfeld V. A comparison of two pelvic floor muscle training programs in females with stress urinary incontinence: a pilot study. Journal of Applied Research 2012;11(2):73-83. [DOI: ]
Due 2019 {published data only}
    1. Due U, Klarskov N, Gras S, Lose G. Pelvic floor muscle training and KAATSU for women with stress urinary incontinence. International Urogynecology Journal 2018;29(Suppl 1):S186-7. [DOI: 10.1007/s00192-018-3752-x] - DOI
    1. Due U, Klarskov N, Gräs S, Lose G. Pelvic floor muscle training with and without supplementary KAATSU for women with stress urinary incontinence – a randomized controlled pilot study. Neurourology and Urodynamics 2019;38(1):379-86. [DOI: 10.1002/nau.23872] - DOI
    1. NCT02676700. Pelvic floor muscle training and Kaatsu training for women with stress urinary incontinence [The effect of pelvic floor muscle training with or without Kaatsu training for women with stress urinary incontinence]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT02676700 (first posted 8 February 2016).
Dumoulin 2004 {published data only}
    1. Dumoulin C, Lemieux M, Bourbonnais D, Morin M. Conservative management of stress urinary incontinence: a single-blind, randomized controlled trial of pelvic floor rehabilitation with or without abdominal muscle rehabilitation compared to the absence of treatment. Neurourology and Urodynamics 2003;22(5):543-4.
    1. Dumoulin C, Lemieux MC, Bourbonnais D, Gravel D, Bravo G, Morin M. Physiotherapy for persistent postnatal stress urinary incontinence: a randomized controlled trial. Obstetrics and Gynecology 2004;104(3):504-10. [DOI: 10.1097/01.AOG.0000135274.92416.62] - DOI
    1. Dumoulin C, Martin C, Elliott V, Bourbonnais D, Morin M, Lemieux MC, et al. Randomized controlled trial of physiotherapy for postpartum stress incontinence: 7-year follow-up. Neurourology and Urodynamics 2013;32(5):449-54. [DOI: 10.1002/nau.22330] - DOI
    1. Dumoulin C, Morin M, Bourbonnais D, Lemieux M, Gravel D. Effect of adding deep abdominal muscle training to pelvic floor muscle training to treat stress urinary incontinence: a one-year follow up. Joint Meeting of the International Continence Society (ICS) (34th Annual Meeting) and the International Urogynecological Association (IUGA); 2004 Aug 23-27; Paris (France).
    1. Dumoulin C, Morin M, Lemieux MC, Bourbonnais D, Bravo G, Gravel D. Efficacy of deep abdominal training when combined with pelvic floor muscle training for stress urinary incontinence: a single-blind randomized controlled trial. Progres en Urologie 2004;14(3 Suppl 3):16.
Farzinmehr 2015 {published data only}
    1. Farzinmehr A, Moezy A, Koohpayehzadeh J, Kashanian M. A comparative study of whole body vibration training and pelvic floor muscle training on women's stress urinary incontinence: three-month follow-up. Journal of Family & Reproductive Health 2015;9(4):147-54.
Ferreira 2014 {published data only}
    1. Ferreira S, Ferreira M, Carvalhais A, Santos PC, Rocha P, Brochado G. Reeducation of pelvic floor muscles in volleyball athletes. Revista da Associacao Medica Brasileira 2014;60(5):428-33.
Fu 2020 {published data only}
    1. Fu Y, Nelson EA, McGowan L. An evidence-based self-management package for urinary incontinence in older women: a mixed methods feasibility study. BMC Urology 2020;20(1):43. [DOI: 10.1186/s12894-020-00603-8] - DOI
Fuentes‐Aparicio 2023 {published data only}
    1. Fuentes-Aparicio L, Balasch-Bernat M, López-Bueno L. Add-on effect of postural instructions to abdominopelvic exercise on urinary symptoms and quality of life in climacteric women with stress urinary incontinence. A pilot randomized controlled trial. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2021;18(3):928. [DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18030928] - DOI
    1. Fuentes-Aparicio L, Rejano-Campo M, López-Bueno L, Marie Donnelly G, Balasch-Bernat M. The effect of an abdominopelvic exercise program alone vs in addition to postural instructions on pelvic floor muscle function in climacteric women with stress urinary incontinence. A randomized controlled trial. Physiotherapy Theory and Practice 2023;39(4):738-49. [DOI: 10.1080/09593985.2022.2028323] - DOI
    1. NCT03727945. Posture in abdominopelvic training in women SUI [Posture correction in abdominopelvic training in women with stress urinary incontinence]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT03727945 (first posted 1 November 2018).
Ghaderi 2016 {published data only}
    1. Ghaderi F, Mohammadi K, Amir Sasan R, Niko Kheslat S, Oskouei AE. Effects of stabilization exercises focusing on pelvic floor muscles on low back pain and urinary incontinence in women. Urology 2016;93:50-4. [DOI: 10.1016/j.urology.2016.03.034] - DOI
Ghoniem 2005 {published data only}
    1. Ghoniem GM, Elser DM, Freeman R, Leeuwen JS, Zhao YD, Yalcin I, et al. Controlled trial of duloxetine alone, pelvic floor muscle training alone, combined treatment, and no treatment in women with stress urinary incontinence (SUI). Journal of Urology 2004;171(4 Suppl):326.
    1. Ghoniem GM, Leeuwen JS, Elser DM, Freeman RM, Zhao YD, Yalcin I, et al, on behalf of the Duloxetine/Pelvic Floor Muscle Training Clinical Trial Group. A randomized controlled trial of duloxetine alone, pelvic floor muscle training alone, combined treatment and no active treatment in women with stress urinary incontinence. Journal of Urology 2005;173(5):1647-53. [DOI: 10.1097/01.ju.0000154167.90600.c6] - DOI
Golmakani 2012 {published data only}
    1. Golmakani N, Esfalani A, Ghaebi NK, Sardar MA, Shakeri MT. Assessing the effect of passive ankle dorsi flexion while doing strengthening exercises of pelvic floor muscles on pelvic floor muscles strength in women with pelvic floor muscles relaxation syndrome. Iranian Journal of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Infertility 2012;15(9):15-22.
Goode 2003 {published data only}
    1. Goode PS, Burgio KL, Locher JL, Roth DL, Umlauf MG, Richter HE, et al. Effect of behavioral training with or without pelvic floor electrical stimulation on stress incontinence in women: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2003;290(3):345-52. [DOI: 10.1001/jama.290.3.345] - DOI
Gordon 2020 {published data only}
    1. Gordon S, Ruivo DB, Viscardi LG, Oliveira AS. Effects of the Pilates method isolated and associated with manual therapy in women with urinary incontinence. Manual Therapy, Posturology & Rehabilitation Journal 2020;18:1190. [DOI: 10.17784/mtprehabjournal.2020.18.1190] - DOI
Haukeland‐Parker 2021 {published data only}
    1. Haukeland-Parker S, Frisk B, Spruit MA, Stafne SN, Johannessen HH. Treatment of urinary incontinence in women with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease – a randomised controlled study. Trials 2021;22:900. [DOI: 10.1186/s13063-021-05816-2] - DOI
    1. NCT02614105. Urinary incontinence amongst women with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease [UriCO – effect of pelvic floor muscle training and cough-suppression therapy on urinary incontinence amongst women with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; a randomised controlled trial]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT02614105 (first posted 25 November 2015).
Hay‐Smith 2002 {published data only}
    1. Hay-Smith EJ, Herbison GP, Wilson PD. Pelvic floor muscle training for women with symptoms of stress urinary incontinence: a randomised trial comparing strengthening and motor relearning approaches. Neurourology and Urodynamics 2002;21(4):371-2.
    1. Hay-Smith EJ. Pelvic Floor Muscle Training for Female Stress Urinary Incontinence [PhD thesis]. Dunedin (New Zealand): University of Otago, 2003.
Hui 2006 {published data only}
    1. Hui E, Lee PS, Woo J. Management of urinary incontinence in older women using videoconferencing versus conventional management: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Telemedicine and Telecare 2006;12(7):343-7.
Hung 2010 {published data only}
    1. Hung HC, Hsiao SM, Chih SY, Lin HH, Tsauo JY. An alternative intervention for urinary incontinence: retraining diaphragmatic, deep abdominal and pelvic floor muscle coordinated function. Manual Therapy 2010;15(3):273-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.math.2010.01.008] - DOI
IRCT201012285486N1 {published data only}
    1. IRCT201012285486N1. A comparative study of whole body vibration training and exercise therapy in treating females stress urinary incontinence. irct.behdasht.gov.ir/trial/5887 (first registered 28 January 2012).
Jeslin 2022 {published data only}
    1. Jeslin GN, Kamalakannan M. Pelvic floor muscle strength in women with diabetes. Biomedicine (India) 2022;42(3):585-8. [DOI: 10.51248/.v42i3.1009] - DOI
Jórasz 2022 {published data only}
    1. Jórasz K, Truszczyńska-Baszak A, Dąbek A. Posture correction therapy and pelvic floor muscle function assessed by sEMG with intravaginal electrode and manometry in female with urinary incontinence. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2022;20(1):369. [DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20010369] - DOI
    1. NCT04366557. The influence of the body posture correcting therapy on pelvic floor muscles function. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT04366557 (first posted 29 April 2020).
JPRN‐UMIN000030107 {published data only}
    1. JPRN-UMIN000030107. Exploratory research and effect verification of the posture acting on the pelvic floor muscles. upload.umin.ac.jp/cgi-open-bin/ctr_e/ctr_view.cgi?recptno=R000034371 (date of disclosure 25 December 2017).
Kamali 2023 {published data only}
    1. Kamali S, Őzengin N, Topçuoğlu MA. The effect of e-pelvic floor muscle training on symptoms in women with stress urinary incontinence: a randomized controlled trial. Women & Health 2023;63(6):473-83. [DOI: 10.1080/03630242.2023.2223729] - DOI
Lange 2024 {published data only}NCT06031870
    1. Lange S, Lange R, Tabibi E, Hitschold T, Müller VI, Naumann G. Comparison of vaginal pessaries to standard care or pelvic floor muscle training for treating postpartum urinary incontinence: a pragmatic randomized controlled trial. Geburtshilfe und Frauenheilkunde 2024;84(3):246-55. [DOI: 10.1055/a-2243-3784] - DOI
    1. Lange S, Tabibi E, Naumann G, Lange R. Comparison of pessaries to pelvic floor training to treat postpartum urinary incontinence: results from a randomized pragmatic trial (BREST). Female Pelvic Medicine & Reconstructive Surgery 2022;28(Suppl 6):S26-7. [DOI: 10.1097/SPV.0000000000001202] - DOI
    1. Lange S, Tabibi E, Naumann G, Lange R. Comparison of pessaries to pelvic floor training to treat postpartum urinary incontinence: results from a randomized pragmatic trial (BREST). International Urogynecology Journal 2022;33(Suppl 2):S204-5. [DOI: 10.1007/s00192-022-05295-2] - DOI
    1. NCT06031870. Pelvic floor rehabilitation study [Beckenboden-rehabilitationsstudie (BREST)]. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT06031870 (first posted 11 September 2023).
Mane 2020 {published data only}
    1. Mane PR, Anandh S, Varadharajulu G. Effectiveness of structured exercise protocol for post menopausal stress urinary incontinence. Indian Journal of Public Health Research & Development 2020;11(1):434-40. [DOI: 10.37506/v11/i1/2020/ijphrd/193856] - DOI
Martinho 2016 {published data only}
    1. Martinho NM, Silva VR, Marques J, Carvalho LC, Iunes DH, Botelho S. The effects of training by virtual reality or gym ball on pelvic floor muscle strength in postmenopausal women: a randomized controlled trial. Brazilian Journal of Physical Therapy 2016;20(3):248-57. [DOI: 10.1590/bjpt-rbf.2014.0148] - DOI
    1. RBR-8tsrb7. Does the videogame training increases the power of the female pelvic floor muscles? [Does the virtual rehabilitation training increases contractility of the female pelvic floor muscles?]. www.ensaiosclinicos.gov.br/rg/RBR-8tsrb7/ (first registered 2 April 2014).
Mason 1999 {published data only}
    1. Mason M. A multicentre study to evaluate different pelvic floor exercise regimes. National Research Register 1999.
McLean 2015 {published data only}
    1. McLean L, Varette K, Baker K, Harvey M, Brison R, Day A. Women with less severe stress urinary incontinence symptoms are most likely to show a complete cure on a standardized pad test after performing a 12 week exercise program. Neurourology and Urodynamics 2015;34(Suppl 3):S42-3. [DOI: 10.1002/nau.22830] - DOI
    1. NCT01602107. The effect of pre-operative pelvic floor muscle exercise on surgical outcomes in women with stress urinary incontinence [Optimizing treatment outcomes for women with stress urinary incontinence through the identification of factors contributing to successful interventions]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT01602107 (first posted 18 May 2012).
Miller 2020 {published data only}
    1. Miller JM, Hawthorne KM, Park L, Tolbert M, Bies K, Garcia C, et al. Self-perceived improvement in bladder health after viewing a novel tutorial on Knack use: a randomized controlled trial pilot study. Journal of Women's Health 2020;29(10):1319-27. [DOI: 10.1089/jwh.2018.7606] - DOI
Nakib 2020 {published data only}
    1. NCT02954042. Pelvital stress urinary incontinence training device: P-SUIT. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT02954042 (first posted 3 November 2017).
    1. Nakib N, Sutherland SE, Hallman KA. Novel pelvic floor treatment with mechanotherapy: clinical trial 24-hr pad weight results in women with stress urinary incontinence. Female Pelvic Medicine & Reconstructive Surgery 2020;26(10 Suppl 1):S140. [DOI: 10.1097/SPV.0000000000000936] - DOI
    1. Nakib N, Sutherland SE, Hallman KA. Novel pelvic floor treatment with mechanotherapy: clinical trial quality of life results in women with stress urinary incontinence. Female Pelvic Medicine & Reconstructive Surgery 2020;26(10 Suppl 1):S147. [DOI: 10.1097/SPV.0000000000000936] - DOI
    1. Nakib NJ, Mianulli M, Sutherland SE. Novel pelvic floor muscle trainer with mechanotherapy: clinical trial interim results in women with stress urinary incontinence (SUI). Neurourology and Urodynamics 2019;38(Suppl S3):S350-1. [DOI: 10.1002/nau.24118] - DOI
    1. Nakib NJ, Sutherland SE, Hallman KA, Boulware DJ, Chrouser K. The effect of pelvic floor muscle conditioning on 24-hr pad weight, voiding frequency and quality of life using an innovative conditioning device during PFMT in women with stress urinary incontinence. International Urogynecology Journal 2019;30(Suppl 1):S111. [DOI: 10.1007/s00192-019-04125-2] - DOI
Navarro‐Brazález  2020 {published data only}
    1. NCT02259712. Effectiveness of hypopressive exercises versus pelvic-perineal physiotherapy [Effectiveness of hypopressive exercises versus pelvic-perineal physiotherapy in women with pelvic floor dysfunction: randomised, single-blinded, clinical trial]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT02259712 (first posted 8 October 2013).
    1. Navarro-Brazález B, Prieto-Gómez V, Prieto-Merino D, Sánchez-Sánchez B, McLean L, Torres-Lacomba M. Effectiveness of hypopressive exercises in women with pelvic floor dysfunction: a randomised controlled trial. Journal of Clinical Medicine 2020;9(4):1149. [DOI: 10.3390/jcm9041149] - DOI
    1. Navarro-Brazález B, Torres-Lacomba M, Sánchez-Sánchez B, Prieto-Gómez V, Vergara-Pérez F, Prieto-Merino D. Effectiveness of hypopressive exercises in women with pelvic floor dysfunction: a single-blinded randomized clinical trial followed by a qualitative research. International Continence Society (ICS), 47th Annual Meeting; 2017 Sept 12-15; Florence (Italy).
NCT01763957 {published data only}
    1. NCT01763957. Paula method compared to pelvic floor muscle training (PFMT), for urinary stress incontinence [The effectiveness of circular muscle exercise (the Paula method) as compared to pelvic floor muscle training (PFMT), for urinary stress incontinence (SUI) in menopausal women: a randomized controlled trial]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT01763957 (first posted 9 January 2013).
NCT01811602 {published data only}
    1. NCT01811602. Gynecological pelvic floor muscle training [The efficacy of pelvic floor muscle training in gynecological cancer survivors: a pilot study]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT01811602 (first posted 14 March 2013).
NCT03194789 {published data only}
    1. NCT03194789. The effect of footwear generated biomechanical manipulation on symptoms of stress urinary incontinence. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT03194789 (first posted 21 June 2017).
NCT04336150 {published data only}
    1. NCT04336150. Effectiveness of different hypopressive exercises in pelvic floor dysfunction [Effectiveness of different hypopressive exercises in pelvic floor dysfunction: randomized controlled trial]. clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT04336150 (first posted 7 April 2020).
NCT04339010 {published data only}
    1. NCT04339010. Effect of hypopressive gymnastics associated or not with pelvic floor muscle training in women with urinary incontinence. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT04339010 (first posted 9 April 2020).
Nie 2021 {published data only}
    1. Nie XF, Rong L, Yue SW, Redding SR, Ouyang YQ, Zhang Q. Efficacy of community-based pelvic floor muscle training to improve pelvic floor dysfunction in Chinese perimenopausal women: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Community Health Nursing 2021;38(1):48-58. [DOI: 10.1080/07370016.2020.1869416] - DOI
Oliveira 2020 {published data only}
    1. Oliveira MC, Bezerra LO, Melo Ângelo PH, Oliveira MC, Silva-Filho E, Ribeiro TS, et al. Game therapy a new approach to treat women facing mixed urinary incontinence: a study protocol. Neurourology and Urodynamics 2020;39(5):1592-600. [DOI: 10.1002/nau.24350] - DOI
    1. Oliveira MC. Effect of Pelvic Floor Muscle Training Isolated and Associated with Gametherapy in the Treatment of Urinary Incontinence – an Exercise Protocol [Efeito do Treinamento da Musculatura do Assoalho Pélvico Isolado e Associado a Gameterapia no Tratamento da Incontinência Urinária – Um Protocolo de Exercícios] [Degree of Physiotherapy]. Natal (Brazil): Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, 2019. [DOI: ]
    1. RBR-6y7m8z. Treatment of efforts urine losses through conventional physical therapy and virtual games [Protocol of treatment for mixed urinary incontinence through kinesiotherapy and virtual reality – Wii Fit Plus]. www.ensaiosclinicos.gov.br/rg/RBR-6y7m8z/ (first registered 16 June 2016).
Ōz Yildirim 2023 {published data only}
    1. Ōz Yildirim Ő, Aydin Avci İ, Yildirim E, Bostanci Y. The effect of the Incontinence Health Belief Development Program on women's urinary incontinence awareness and health beliefs: a randomized controlled trial. International Urogynecology Journal 2023;34(7):1385-93. [DOI: 10.1007/s00192-022-05343-x] - DOI
Philips 1992 {published data only}
    1. Philips HC, Fenster HN, Samsom D. An effective treatment for functional urinary incoordination. Journal of Behavioral Medicine 1992;15(1):45-63. [DOI: 10.1007/BF00848377] - DOI
Ptak 2017 {published data only}
    1. Ptak M, Brodowska A, Ciećwież S, Rotter I. Quality of life in women with stage 1 stress urinary incontinence after application of conservative treatment – a randomized trial. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2017;14(6):577. [DOI: 10.3390/ijerph14060577] - DOI
    1. Ptak M, Ciećwież S, Brodowska A, Starczewski A, Nawrocka-Rutkowska J, Diaz-Mohedo E, et al. The effect of pelvic floor muscles exercise on quality of life in women with stress urinary incontinence and its relationship with vaginal deliveries: a randomized trial. Biomedical Research International 2019;2019:5321864. [DOI: 10.1155/2019/5321864] - DOI
    1. Ptak M, Ciećwież S, Brodowska A, Starczewski A, Rotter I. The influence of a selected exercise model on the quality of life of women with grade I stress urinary incontinence in relation to the number of births they have given – a randomized trial. International Urogynecology Journal 2018;29(Suppl 1):S195-6. [DOI: 10.1007/s00192-018-3752-x] - DOI
    1. Ptak M, Ciećwież S, Brodowska A, Szylińska A, Starczewski A, Rotter I. The effect of selected exercise programs on the quality of life in women with grade 1 stress urinary incontinence and its relationship with various body mass indices: a randomized trial. Biomedical Research International 2020;2020:1205281. [DOI: 10.1155/2020/1205281] - DOI
Rajalaxmi 2019 {published data only}
    1. Rajalaxmi V, Varalakshmi S, Hema Suresh V, Mohan Kumar G, Kamatchi K, Vaishnavi G, et al. Efficacy of pelvic floor muscle training, yoga and cognitive behavioural therapy for urinary incontinence in diabetic women – a randomized controlled double blinded study. Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology 2019;12(10):4618-22. [DOI: 10.5958/0974-360X.2019.00794.7] - DOI
Ramsay 1990 {published data only}
    1. Ramsay IN, Thou M. A randomised, double blind, placebo controlled trial of pelvic floor exercises in the treatment of genuine stress incontinence. Neurourology and Urodynamics 1990;9(4):398-9.
RBR‐27fvry {published data only}
    1. RBR-27fvry. To verify the influence of moderate or strenuous physical activity and sedentary lifestyle on the rate of urinary incontinence in young women who had never had children [Influence of physical activity levels and sedentary behavior in the prevalence of urinary incontinence in young nuliparous women]. ensaiosclinicos.gov.br/rg/RBR-27fvry (first registered 21 September 2017).
RBR‐7yn9h7 {published data only}
    1. RBR-7yn9h7. Platform vibration protocol for vaginal muscles [Can a full body vibration exercise program increase the strength of female pelvic floor muscles?]. www.ensaiosclinicos.gov.br/rg/RBR-7yn9h7/ (first registered 13 January 2016).
Santiago 2023 {published data only}
    1. NCT05114395. Comparison between a telerehabilitation program for urinary incontinence versus a conventional face-to-face program [Comparison between a telerehabilitation program for urinary incontinence versus a conventional face-to-face program: a longitudinal study in pandemic times]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT05114395 (first posted 10 November 2021).
    1. Santiago M, Cardoso-Teixeira P, Pereira S, Firmino-Machado J, Moreira S. A hybrid-telerehabilitation versus a conventional program for urinary incontinence: a randomized trial during COVID-19 pandemic. International Urogynecology Journal 2023;34(3):717-27. [DOI: 10.1007/s00192-022-05108-6] - DOI
Seckin 2011 {published data only}
    1. Seckin B, Kulaksizoglu H, Cakmakci E. The effects of pelvic floor muscle targeted Pilates versus regular aerobic exercise on urinary incontinence. Urology 2011;78(3 Suppl):S400-1. [DOI: 10.1016/j.urology.2011.07.1259] - DOI
Sousa Farias 2021 {published data only}
    1. Abrantes Rodrigues L, Sousa Farias I, Nazare Veras Pereira PT, Da Silva Dias GA, Carneiro Nunes EF. Effects of Pilates method in treatment of women with stress urinary incontinence [Dfeitos do método Pilates no tratamento de mulheres com incontinêcia urinária de esforço]. Revista Inspirar Movimento & Saude 2018;13(2 Suppl):53-4.
    1. Sousa Farias I, Pereira PT, Dos Santos DP, Pereira C, Da Silva Dias GA, Feio Carneiro Nunes EF. Effects of Pilates method in treatment of women with stress urinary incontinence [Efeitos do método Pilates no tratamento de mulheres com incontinêcia urinária de esforço]. Brasileira de Saúde Funcional 2021;9(1):88-98. [DOI: ]
Stüpp 2011 {published data only}
    1. Stüpp L, Yamamoto D, Fonseca T, Resende AM, Ploger C, Oliveira E, et al. Proprioception and awareness training prior pelvic floor muscle exercises for treatment of urinary incontinence: randomized controlled trial. International Urogynecology Journal and Pelvic Floor Dysfunction 2011;22(Suppl 1):S162-4.
Tang 2022 {published data only}
    1. Tang Y, Guo X, Wang Y, Liu Z, Cao G, Zhou Y, et al. Rumba dance combined with breathing training as an exercise intervention in the management of stress urinary incontinence in postmenopausal women: a randomized controlled trial. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2022;20(1):522. [DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20010522] - DOI
Virtuoso 2019 {published data only}
    1. Mazo GZ, Menezes EC, Silvestre MV, De Bem Fretta T, Cozza J, Severo AA, et al. Effects of pelvic floor muscle training associated with resistance training on urinary loss and psychological aspects in older women: a randomized clinical trial [Efeitos do treinamento muscular do assoalho pélvico associado í musculação na perda urinária e nos aspectos psicológicos em mulheres idosas: ensaio clí­nico randomizado]. Fisioterapia Brasil 2018;19(6):830-8. [DOI: 10.33233/fb.v19i6.2401] - DOI
    1. RBR-85qvn9. Older women with urinary loss: evaluation and treatment with exercise and physiotherapy [Older women with urinary incontinence: evaluation and intervention through physical exercise and physiotherapy]. ensaiosclinicos.gov.br/rg/RBR-85qvn9 (first registered 13 June 2018).
    1. Virtuoso JF, Menezes EC, Mazo GZ. Effect of weight training with pelvic floor muscle training in elderly women with urinary incontinence. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 2019;90(2):141-50. [DOI: 10.1080/02701367.2019.1571674] - DOI
von der Heide 2003 {published data only}
    1. Heide S, Emons G, Hilgers R, Viereck V. Effect on muscles of mechanical vibrations produced by the Galileo 2000 in combination with physical therapy in treating female stress urinary incontinence. International Continence Society (ICS), 33rd Annual Meeting; 2003 Oct 5-9; Florence (Italy).
Wang 2023a {published data only}
    1. Wang Y, Liu L, Chen Q, Gao K, Wang H, Xu N, et al. Modified lumbo-pelvic exercise to alleviate mild stress urinary incontinence in middle-aged females. Scientific Reports 2023;13(1):7142. [DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-34417-z] - DOI
Wilson 1998 {published data only}
    1. Wilson PD, Herbison GP. A randomized controlled trial of pelvic floor muscle exercises to treat postnatal urinary incontinence. International Urogynecology Journal and Pelvic Floor Dysfunction 1998;9(5):257-64. [DOI: 10.1007/BF01901501] - DOI
Yoon 1999 {published data only}
    1. Yoon HN, Hong JY, Choi YH, Back SH. The effect of pelvic floor muscle exercises on genuine stress incontinence among Korean women: focusing on it's effects on the quality of life. International Continence Society (ICS), 29th Annual Meeting; 1999 Aug 23-26; Denver (Colorado).
Yuvarani 2018 {published data only}
    1. Yuvarani G, Daggumati HB, Ramachandran S, Sudhakar S. The effect of TrA training and Pilates in women with stress urinary incontinence. Biomedicine (India) 2018;38(3):404-7.

References to studies awaiting assessment

Carnero 2021 {published data only}
    1. Carnero KG, Gündling PW. Effect of home pelvic floor muscle training using mobile app in primipara with stress incontinence. European Journal of Integrative Medicine 2021;48:102058. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eujim.2021.102058] - DOI
ChiCTR2300071673 {published data only}ChiCTR2300071673
    1. ChiCTR2300071673. Impact of the 5E rehabilitation model on self-management in women with stress urinary incontinence: a mixed study. trialsearch.who.int/Trial2.aspx?TrialID=ChiCTR2300071673 (first registered 22 May 2023).
ChiCTR2300074915 {published data only}ChiCTR2300074915
    1. ChiCTR2300074915. Observations on the efficacy of physical therapy on female stress urinary incontinence. www.chictr.org.cn/showproj.html?proj=203256 (first registered 21 August 2023).
CTRI/2019/05/019299 {published data only}CTRI/2019/05/019299
    1. CTRI/2019/05/019299. Postpartum stress urinary incontinence [The comparison of 90|90 bridge with ball and balloon exercise with Kegel exercise on postpartum stress urinary incontinence – randomized clinical trial]. www.ctri.nic.in/Clinicaltrials/pmaindet2.php?EncHid=MjY2Mjg=&Enc=&am... (first registered 23 May 2019).
CTRI/2020/07/026729 {published data only}CTRI/2020/07/026729
    1. CTRI/2020/07/026729. Muscle training for improving quality of life of women with urine problem [Effectiveness of pelvic floor muscle training on quality of life of women with urine incontinence: a randomized clinical trial]. ctri.nic.in/Clinicaltrials/showallp.php?mid1=44788&EncHid=&userN... (first posted 22 July 2020).
CTRI/2021/09/036247 {published data only}
    1. CTRI/2021/09/036247. To compare the effect of core muscle strengthening with strengthening of the pelvic floor muscles in urinary incontinence among women [Relative efficacy of dynamic neuromuscular stabilization exercise compared to Kegel's exercise on stress urinary incontinence among women]. www.ctri.nic.in/Clinicaltrials/pmaindet2.php?trialid=56645 (first registered 6 September 2021).
CTRI/2022/09/045290 {published data only}CTRI/2022/09/045290
    1. CTRI/2022/09/045290. Effectiveness of simultaneous contraction of abdominal and vaginal muscles in voiding problems among young females [Effectiveness of co-contraction of transverse abdominis and pelvic floor muscle for stress urinary incontinence among young females – a randomized controlled trial]. trialsearch.who.int/Trial2.aspx?TrialID=CTRI/2022/09/045290 (first registered 7 September 2022).
ISRCTN14126416 {published data only}
    1. ISRCTN14126416. The role of abdominal muscle training in combination with pelvic floor muscle training to treat female urinary incontinence. A pilot study [Does training of the transversus abdominis muscle provide an additional clinical benefit to the training of pelvic floor muscles in female urinary incontinence?]. trialsearch.who.int/Trial2.aspx?TrialID=ISRCTN14126416 (first registered 31 May 2023).
Jia 2018 {published data only}
    1. Jia J, Xu J, Qiu X. Application of hospital-community-family home care mobile app in patients with stress urinary incontinence. Chinese Journal of Nursing 2018;12:533-6.
Li 2021 {published data only}
    1. Li F, Wang K, Liu K, Ebrahimi M. The application of pelvic floor ultrasound image analysis technology in the neurorehabilitation of postpartum urinary incontinence. Journal of Medical Imaging and Health Informatics 2021;11(2):618-22. [DOI: 10.1166/jmihi.2021.3330] - DOI
Liu 2009 {published data only}
    1. Liu L, Guan H, Chen G. The effects of rehabilitation exercise on the quality of life of the female urinary incontinence patients. Today Nurse 2009;10:1-2. [DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1006-6411-B.2009.10.001] - DOI
Mishra 2022 {published data only}
    1. Mishra DG, Vaishnav SB, Phatak AG. Comparison of effectiveness of home-based verses supervised pelvic floor muscle exercise in women with urinary incontinence. Journal of Midlife Health 2022;13(1):74-9. [DOI: 10.4103/jmh.jmh_83_21] - DOI
NCT03166150 {published data only}
    1. NCT03166150. Functional assessment and muscle evaluation through exercise trial [Urinary incontinence, mobility & muscle function in older women: functional assessment and muscle evaluation through exercise (FAME) trial]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT03166150 (first posted 25 May 2017).
NCT03514147 {published data only}
    1. NCT03514147. Pelvic floor muscle training on the quality of life in women with urinary incontinence [The effect of pelvic floor muscle training on the quality of life and functionality in women with urinary incontinence: a randomized controlled trial]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT03514147 (first posted 2 May 2018).
NCT04390204 {published data only}
    1. NCT04390204. Evaluation of the effect of a postural reflex rehabilitation program on a foam surface on stress urinary incontinence in women. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT04390204 (first posted 15 May 2020).
NCT04587895 {published data only}
    1. NCT04587895. Feasibility study of an individualized exergame training for older adults with MI and/or UI (VITAAL) [Feasibility study of an individualized exergame training for older adults with mobility impairment and/or urinary incontinence]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT04587895 (first posted 14 October 2020).
NCT05154760 {published data only}
    1. NCT05154760. Effectiveness of video conferencing in urinary incontinence [The effectiveness of the video conferencing telerehabilitation method, delivered in one on one and group sessions, in urinary incontinence cases]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT05154760 (first posted 13 December 2021).
NCT05193435 {published data only}
    1. NCT05193435. Comparison of stabilization exercises and pelvic floor muscle training in women with stress urinary incontinence. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT05193435 (first posted 14 January 2022).
NCT05253898 {published data only}
    1. NCT05253898. Comparison of pelvic floor therapy and yoga on stress urinary incontinence [Comparison of group-based pelvic floor physical therapy and therapeutic yoga for postnatal stress urinary incontinence]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT05253898 (first posted 24 February 2022).
NCT05293886 {published data only}
    1. NCT05293886. Comparison of two different pelvic floor muscle training programs in stress urinary incontinence [Comparison of the effects of two different pelvic floor muscle training programs in women with stress urinary incontinence]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT05293886 (first posted 24 March 2022).
NCT05390008 {published data only}
    1. NCT05390008. The effects of PFMT and MPE in elderly women with SUI [The effects of pelvic floor muscle training and modified Pilates exercises in elderly women with stress urinary incontinence]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT05390008 (first posted 25 May 2022).
NCT05437666 {published data only}
    1. NCT05437666. Effects of pelvic floor health education program in women with stress urinary incontinence. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT05437666 (first posted 29 June 2022).
NCT05446792 {published data only}
    1. NCT05446792. Comparison between pelvic muscle training and Pilates exercises for UI in postmenopausal women [Comparison between pelvic floor muscle training and Pilates exercises on urinary incontinence in postmenopausal women: randomized controlled trial]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT05446792 (first posted 7 July 2022).
NCT05463172 {published data only}
    1. NCT05463172. Abdominal muscles strengthening and pelvic floor muscle strengthening exercises in females with urinary incontinence [Comparison of abdominal muscles strengthening and pelvic floor muscle strengthening exercises on bladder neck mobility in females with urinary incontinence]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT05463172 (first posted 18 July 2022).
RBR‐106frtzv {published data only}RBR‐106frtzv
    1. RBR-106frtzv. Effects of the use of a mobile application in women with complaints of stress urinary incontinence [Effects of using a mobile application in female pelvic training in women complaining of stress urinary incontinence: a randomized controlled trial]. trialsearch.who.int/Trial2.aspx?TrialID=RBR-106frtzv (first registered 10 October 2022).
RBR‐10scxbgv {published data only}RBR‐10scxbgv
    1. RBR-10scxbgv. The effect of physical exercise on the quality of life of postpartum women [Recovery of women's pelvic floor in the postpartum: a question of quality of life]. trialsearch.who.int/Trial2.aspx?TrialID=RBR-10scxbgv (first registered 31 May 2022).
RBR‐52qtts {published data only}RBR‐52qtts
    1. RBR-52qtts. Stress urinary incontinence: comparison between pelvic floor muscle training and Pilates method [Effects of pelvic floor muscle training (TMAP) or Pilates method in the treatment of stress urinary incontinence in women: prospective, randomized and controlled study]. ensaiosclinicos.gov.br/rg/RBR-52qtts (first registered 4 August 2020).
RBR‐8rcfp6 {published data only}RBR‐8rcfp6
    1. RBR-8rcfp6. Older women with urinary loss: program with physical exercise and physiotherapy [Older women with urinary incontinence: evaluation and intervention through physical exercise and physiotherapy]. ensaiosclinicos.gov.br/rg/RBR-8rcfp6 (first registered 1 March 2018).
RBR‐9mh6p6 {published data only}RBR‐9mh6p6
    1. RBR-9mh6p6. Compare pelvic floor muscle training with "Knack" contraction [To evaluate the effect of pelvic floor muscle training with the "Knack" technique in women with stress urinary incontinence – randomized study]. ensaiosclinicos.gov.br/rg/RBR-9mh6p6 (first registered 27 July 2020).
Rinaldi 2018 {published data only}
    1. Rinaldi R, Fotakos G, Rodrigues LC, DePaula GC, Dos Santos Monteiro Carbone E, Souza LT. The use of virtual reality as an instrument of treatment for urinary incontinence of effort – pilot. International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics 2018;143(Suppl 3):874. [DOI: 10.1002/ijgo.12583] - DOI
Soni 2013 {published data only}
    1. Soni K, Soni H, Desai D, Shah C, Patel H. Randomized controlled trial of group versus individual physiotherapy sessions for genuine stress incontinence in women. Indian Journal of Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy 2013;7(1):110-5.
TCTR20210202002 {published data only}TCTR20210202002
    1. TCTR20210202002. Comparison of home-based functional approach and Kegel exercise on quality of life in community dwelling postnatal women with stress urinary incontinence. www.thaiclinicaltrials.org/show/TCTR20210202002 (first posted 1 February 2021).
Torkzadeh 2016 {published data only}
    1. Torkzadeh A, Pormomeny A, Zargham M. The effect of two types of exercise therapy on improvement of stress urinary incontinence in women. Journal of Isfahan Medical School 2016;34(378):341-6.
Wang 2023b {published data only}
    1. Wang J, An D. Effect of Internet combined with pelvic floor muscle training on postpartum urinary incontinence. International Urogynecology Journal 2023;34(10):2539-46. [DOI: 10.1007/s00192-023-05561-x] - DOI

References to ongoing studies

Aliyu 2021 {published data only}PACTR201906515532827
    1. Aliyu SU, Hanif SM, Lawal IU. Effect of Paula exercise method on functional outcomes of women with post fistula repair incontinence: a protocol for randomized controlled trial. BMC Women's Health 2021;21(1):101. [DOI: 10.1186/s12905-021-01249-w] - DOI
    1. PACTR201906515532827. Effect of Paula method on functional outcomes among women having post fistula repair incontinence: mixed method study. pactr.samrc.ac.za/TrialDisplay.aspx?TrialID=5732 (first approved 24 June 2019).
CTRI/2021/05/033437 {published data only}CTRI/2021/05/033437
    1. CTRI/2021/05/033437. Feasibility, efficacy, and safety of Yoga therapy in urinary incontinence in women (a prospective randomized control trial). www.ctri.nic.in/Clinicaltrials/pmaindet2.php?trialid=50864 (first registered 6 May 2021).
CTRI/2023/01/048731 {published data only}CTRI/2023/01/048731
    1. CTRI/2023/01/048731. To know the effect of different types of muscle training on the uncontrollable loss of urine [Efficacy of pelvic floor, diaphragm and transversus abdominis muscle training in individuals with urinary incontinence: a randomized controlled trial]. trialsearch.who.int/Trial2.aspx?TrialID=CTRI/2023/01/048731 (first registered 4 January 2023).
CTRI/2023/03/050779 {published data only}CTRI/2023/03/050779
    1. CTRI/2023/03/050779. Effect of hip muscles exercises combining with pelvic floor exercise in treating urinary incontinence after menopause in women [Effectiveness of hip muscles strengthening with Kegels exercise in treatment of stress urinary incontinence among postmenopausal women: a randomized controlled trial]. trialsearch.who.int/Trial2.aspx?TrialID=CTRI/2023/03/050779 (first registered 17 March 2023).
CTRI/2023/05/052395 {published data only}CTRI/2023/05/052395
    1. CTRI/2023/05/052395. Effect of pelvic floor muscle training and strengthening of hip muscles in stress urinary incontinence [Effectiveness of pelvic floor muscle training and progressive resisted exercises of hip muscles in stress urinary incontinence – a randomized controlled trial]. trialsearch.who.int/Trial2.aspx?TrialID=CTRI/2023/05/052395 (first registered 9 May 2023).
Fitz 2021 {published data only}
    1. Fitz FF, Gimenez MM, Azevedo Ferreira L, Matias MM, Bortolini MA, Castro RA. Effects of voluntary pre-contraction of the pelvic floor muscles (the Knack) on female stress urinary incontinence – a study protocol for a RCT. Trials 2021;22(1):484. [DOI: 10.1186/s13063-021-05440-0] - DOI
    1. NCT03722719. The Knack on female stress urinary incontinence [Effects of voluntary pre-contraction of the pelvic floor muscles (the Knack) on female stress urinary incontinence – randomised controlled clinical trial]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT03722719 (first posted 29 October 2018).
IRCT20090301001722N30 {published data only}Irct20090301001722N
    1. IRCT20090301001722N30. Evaluation of the effects of pelvic floor muscle strengthening exercise plus hip rotator muscle exercise on the stress urinary incontinence [Comparison of the effects of pelvic floor muscle strengthening exercise, pelvic floor muscle strengthening exercise plus hip rotator muscle exercise, and pelvic floor muscle strengthening exercise plus electrical stimulation on the symptoms of women with stress and mixed urinary incontinence]. trialsearch.who.int/Trial2.aspx?TrialID=IRCT20090301001722N30 (first registered 11 July 2023).
IRCT20210219050410N1 {published data only}http://en.irct.ir/trial/54439
    1. IRCT20210219050410N1. Comparing the effectiveness of Kegel exercises and Paula method on the severity of stress urinary incontinence in aged women in virtual training: a parallel randomized clinical trial. trialsearch.who.int/Trial2.aspx?TrialID=IRCT20210219050410N1 (first registered 20 July 2021).
IRCT20210702051761N1 {published data only}IRCT20210702051761N1
    1. IRCT20210702051761N1. Extraction of muscle synergies after pelvic floor muscle training in women with urinary incontinence [Extraction of muscle synergies to investigate changes in biomechanical parameters after the addition of abdominal hypopressive technique to pelvic floor]. trialsearch.who.int/Trial2.aspx?TrialID=IRCT20210702051761N1 (first registered 23 July 2021).
IRCT20210928052626N1 {published data only}Irct20210928052626N
    1. IRCT20210928052626N1. Evaluation of the efficacy of using the pelvic floor muscle training application in comparison with physiotherapy [Evaluation of the efficacy of using the pelvic floor muscle training application in comparison with physiotherapy in patients with urinary incontinence]. trialsearch.who.int/Trial2.aspx?TrialID=IRCT20210928052626N1 (first registered 27 November 2022).
IRCT20211121053129N1 {published data only}IRCT20211121053129N1
    1. IRCT20211121053129N1. The effect of tele-rehabilitation on stress urinary incontinence [Effectiveness of tele-rehabilitation for supervised pelvic floor motor learning exercise with biofeedback in subjects with stress urinary incontinence (SUI)]. trialsearch.who.int/Trial2.aspx?TrialID=IRCT20211121053129N1 (first registered 1 December 2021).
NCT03296462 {published data only}
    1. NCT03296462. Hip external rotation physical therapy trial [Physiotherapy for stress urinary incontinence: feasibility study for a randomized controlled trial of hip external rotation exercise training versus pelvic floor muscle exercise training]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT03296462 (first posted 28 September 2017).
NCT03727269 {published data only}
    1. NCT03727269. Wii Fit game based abdomino-pelvic training in urinary incontinence [Role of Wii Fit game based abdomino-pelvic training in females with urinary incontinence]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT03727269 (first posted 1 November 2018).
NCT03911362 {published data only}
    1. NCT03911362. A comparison of lumbopelvic stabilisation and pelvic floor exercises on the stress incontinence [A comparison of the effect on stress urinary incontinence of lumbopelvic stabilisation exercises and pelvic floor exercises: a randomised controlled trial]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT03911362 (first posted 11 April 2019).
NCT04237753 {published data only}
    1. NCT04237753. Remote access to urinary incontinence treatment for women veterans [Optimizing remote access to urinary incontinence treatment for women veterans]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT04237753 (first posted 23 January 2020).
NCT04994041 {published data only}
    1. NCT04994041. Adductor strengthening and pelvic floor muscle strengthening exercises on stress incontinence in gym females [Comparison of adductor strengthening and pelvic floor muscle strengthening exercises on stress incontinence in gym females]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT04994041 (first posted 6 August 2021).
NCT05443074 {published data only}
    1. NCT05443074. Efficacy of a face to face versus a remote physiotherapy instruction session about pelvic floor in women with urinary incontinence [Efficacy of a face-to-face versus a remote physiotherapy instruction session about pelvic floor in the pelvic floor muscle capacity of incontinent women: a randomized controlled trial]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT05443074 (first posted 5 July 2022).
NCT05610761 {published data only}
    1. NCT05610761. Efficacy of core stabilization exercises in women with stress and mixed urinary incontinence [Efficacy of core stabilization exercises in women with stress and mixed urinary incontinence: randomized controlled trial]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT05610761 (first posted 9 November 2022).
NCT05618886 {published data only}
    1. NCT05618886. The effect of pelvic floor muscle training for urinary incontinence in Nepalese women. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT05618886 (first posted 16 November 2022).
NCT05635175 {published data only}
    1. NCT05635175. Effectiveness of a hip abductor training in women with stress urinary incontinence. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT05635175 (first posted 2 December 2022).
NCT05666427 {published data only}
    1. NCT05666427. Investigation of the effects of stabilization exercises and pelvic floor muscle training on pain and urinary parameters in individuals with chronic low back pain with urinary incontinence [Investigation of the effect of pelvic floor muscle training combined with stabilization exercises on pain and urinary parameters in individuals with low back pain with urinary incontinence]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT05666427 (first posted 27 December 2022).
NCT05751213 {published data only}
    1. NCT05751213. Knack technique in post-menopausal women with stress urinary incontinence [Effects of pelvic floor muscle exercises with and without Knack technique in post-menopausal women with stress urinary incontinence]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT05751213 (first posted 2 March 2023).
NCT05916820 {published data only}
    1. NCT05916820. Effects of Tanzberger versus pelvic floor muscle exercises on urinary incontinence [Effects of Tanzberger versus pelvic floor muscle training on urinary incontinence and quality of life in post-menopausal females]. clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT05916820 (first posted 23 June 2023).
NCT05970796 {published data only}
    1. NCT05970796. A telehealth-delivered physical therapy program for postmenopausal women with urinary incontinence [The feasibility and effects of a telehealth-delivered physical therapy program for postmenopausal women with urinary incontinence]. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT05970796 (first posted 1 August 2023).
RBR‐3b2g2y {published data only}RBR‐3b2g2y/
    1. RBR-3b2g2y. Different semantic frequencies of pelvic floor muscle training for women with stress urinary incontinence [Different weekly frequencies of pelvic floor muscle training for women with stress urinary incontinence: a randomized controlled trial with economic evaluation]. www.ensaiosclinicos.gov.br/rg/RBR-3b2g2y/ (first registered 27 December 2019).
RBR‐3fgwc7 {published data only}RBR‐3fgwc7
    1. RBR-3fgwc7. Treatment through electrical stimulation and exercises for urinary incontinence [Pelvic floor training in urinary incontinence comparing techniques treatment by intravaginal electrical stimulation and kinesiotherapy]. www.ensaiosclinicos.gov.br/rg/RBR-3fgwc7/ (first registered 30 November 2016).
RBR‐64n2g5h {published data only}RBR‐64n2g5h
    1. RBR-64n2g5h. Pilates methods can cause perineal effects and exercises in the treatment of perineal dysfunctions in postpartum women: a randomized clinical trial [Effects of the Pilates method with floor activation pelvic and perineal exercises in the treatment of dysfunctions of the pelvic floor in postpartum women: clinical test randomized]. trialsearch.who.int/Trial2.aspx?TrialID=RBR-64n2g5h (first registered 22 July 2022).
RBR‐6vymyxs {published data only}RBR‐6vymyxs
    1. RBR-6vymyxs. Training of the pelvic floor for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence in the of teleconsultation [Training of the muscles of the pelvic floor for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence in the modality of teleconsultation and telemonitoring]. trialsearch.who.int/Trial2.aspx?TrialID=RBR-6vymyxs (first registered 25 January 2023).
RBR‐8ht5nqq {published data only}RBR‐8ht5nqq
    1. RBR-8ht5nqq. Tele rehabilitation for women with urinary incontinence after gynecological pelvic cancer treatment [Tele rehabilitation program of the pelvic floor in women with urinary incontinence after surgery, radiotherapy and/or brachytherapy for gynecological pelvic cancer: randomized and controlled clinical trial]. ensaiosclinicos.gov.br/rg/RBR-8ht5nqq (first registered 26 January 2022).
RBR‐97rb5wk {published data only}RBR‐97rb5wk
    1. RBR-97rb5wk. Physiotherapy for women after gynecologic pelvic cancer treatment [Rehabilitation program of pelvic floor post-surgery and radiotherapy for gynecological pelvic cancer: randomized and controlled clinical trial]. ensaiosclinicos.gov.br/rg/RBR-97rb5wk (first registered 13 December 2021).
RBR‐9gf79b {published data only}RBR‐9gf79b
    1. RBR-9gf79b. Muscular training of the pelvic floor versus hyphopressive abdominal gymnastics (GAH) in urinary symptoms, sexual function and quality of life in climate women: randomized clinical trial. ensaiosclinicos.gov.br/trial/4940 (first registered 1 March 2018).

Additional references

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References to other published versions of this review

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